Introduction to Shakespeare
William Shakespeare has become the most famous and
influential author in English literature. Only active as a writer for a quarter
century, he wrote thirty-eight plays, one hundred fifty-four sonnets and two
epic poems that reinvented and defined the English language to such a degree
that his works are required study all over the world.
Very little is known about Shakespeare's early life.
He was born around 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon to a middle-class merchant
family and by the age of eighteen he was married with a child on the way. He
would later father two more children. By 1592 he had become a successful actor
and playwright in London and was famous among Londoners for the popularity of
his plays.
Shakespeare was an astute businessman as well as an
artist. He recognized that he could broaden his audience by using characters
and language that would appeal to both the noble and the lower classes. He
mixed both bawdy and sophisticated humour to appeal to his larger audience. He
also wrote about the human experience with universal themes of love, ambition
and envy that are still felt and loved by modern audiences.
The plays are often categorized as tragedies,
comedies or histories. Tragedies featured sympathetic protagonists who were
doomed by their flaws. Comedies tended to be more upbeat, with happy endings
that often led to a marriage. The historical plays were frequently politically
motivated to appeal to the Elizabethan court and featured British and Scottish
kings.
As an actor, Shakespeare was present during the production
of his plays and therefore wrote them with very little stage direction.
Dialogue was written in blank verse and iambic pentameter, meaning that each
line of speech is ten syllables long and unrhymed. In his early works, lines
were often stressed at the end. As his writing developed, Shakespeare gained an
understanding that a more lyrical style of writing would hold the audiences
interest and be more pleasing to the ear. He developed a characteristic cadence
to his dialogue, stressing his lines in the second syllable to provide a
rhythmic pattern to his speeches.
Shakespeare's writing developed and evolved
throughout his career. Scholars often divide his work into periods based on
different aspects of his writing style.
Early Period (Pre-1594)
Still early in Shakespeare's career, the plays of
this period tend to be less sophisticated than his later works. The plays of
this period are typically set in Roman and Medieval times.
Period of Comedy (1594-1600)
Shakespeare developed his writing further, with
scenes flowing more naturally. His comedy became more sophisticated and he set
himself apart from other playwrights by the use of comic relief and mild humour
in his tragedies. His most famous work of this period, The Tragedy of Romeo and
Juliet, is a fine example of using the servant class, especially Juliet's
nurse, to break tension with comic relief.
Period of Tragedy (1600-1608)
It was during this period that Shakespeare wrote his
best historical dramas and relied on royal and powerful characters to
demonstrate human weaknesses that were relatable to all classes of audience.
This was the time in which Shakespeare wrote Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear,
Othello and Julius Caesar, his greatest tragedies and most celebrated works.
His writing took a dark turn and explored his character's inner conflicts,
guilt and remorse.
Period of Romance and Tragicomedy (1608-1613)
By this time, Shakespeare's writing was fully
developed into the sharp, fast-paced and lyrical style of dialogue that became
his trademark. His use of symbolism and social commentary became more
pronounced in plays of this period, as is illustrated in The Tempest.
Sonnets
In 1609, Shakespeare published his collection of one
hundred fifty-four sonnets. Like his plays, the sonnets encompass many aspects
of the human experience. Mortality is a strong theme, explored from the
perspective of youth being encouraged to procreate to extend their lives to a
future generation. Mortality is also examined as he writes about the lives of
lovers growing old, death and about the brief nature of existence.
The sonnets are constructed of fourteen lines,
divided into three groups of four lines, called quatrains, and a final group of
two lines called a couplet. Usually the mood of the sonnet changes in the third
quatrain as the writer expresses a realization or sudden insight.
All of the sonnets are written in iambic pentameter
and the final word in each line follows an abab cdcd efef gg rhyming scheme. To
this day, any poem written in this pattern is known as a Shakespearean sonnet.
Shakespeare retired from writing in 1613 and died
three years later at the age of fifty-two. Most of his works were published
posthumously in 1623.
Shakespeare's Tragedies
Antony and Cleopatra narrates the disastrous effects of the
affair between Roman leader Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra. Following several
up and downs in their relationship, Cleopatra has Antony believe that she has
comitted suicide, to which he responds with the same action. Unable to
withstand betrayal and the loss of her freedom and wealth, Cleopatra kills
herself.
Coriolanus describes a tumultous period of riots
in Rome and the role of general Caius Martius (Coriolanus himself) in several
battles and sieges over the empire's capital.
Cymbeline describes the love story between King
Cymbelin's daughter Imogen and her lover Posthumus amid a battle between
Britons and Romans. The pair are happily married following false accusations
and years of separation.
Hamlet is set at the Danish Royal court, and
it narrates the story of Prince Hamlet and his attempt to avenge his father's
death. After several unfortunate mistakes, Hamlet and his loved ones die poisoned.
Julius Caesar details the conspiracy that ended with
Julius Caesar's life and the disputes that eventually result in the death of
the emperor's assassins.
King Lear describes the family feud that takes
place between King Lear's three daughters over their father's inheritance and
their betrayal at the hands of their husbands.
Macbeth - This famous play describes the rise
to power of general Macbeth and his wife, and the crimes they commit in their
haste to become rulers, before succumbing to guilt and betrayal.
Othello narrates a complex love triangle in
which Othello and his wife Desdemona are the main characters. Suspecting
adultery, Othello smothers his wife only to realise his innocence, after which
he kills himself.
Romeo and Juliet - The love story par excellence
depicts the effects of a feud between Verona's Capulet and Montague families,
which ends up by destroying the lives of the famous couple.
Timon of Athens is the story of a wealthy noble who
gives away his fortune only to regret it afterwards. Let down by his former
former friends and bankrupt, he escapes to the woods, where he finds a gold
mine. Regardless his newly-found wealth, Timon dies alone.
Titus Andronicus narrates the quarrels between the
various successors to the Roman Emperor, one of which is Titus. Rape,
cannibalism, and betrayal are the main ingredients of this somber story.
Troilus and Cressida takes place during the Trojan Wars and
describes the love story and subsequent separation of this couple as a result
of the squirmishes between Greeks and Trojans.
Shakespeare's Comedies
All's Well that Ends Well narrates the story of French Count
Bertram, who reluctantly marries Helena at the King's request. Feeling
unwanted, Helena allies with other women to destroy Bertram's reputation.
As You Like It describes the parallel love stories
between Rosalind, Orlando, Silvius, and Phebe, who are forced to live in hiding
until the Duchy is restored to its legitimate owner.
The Comedy of Errors describes the misadventures suffered
by two pairs of twins, who try to keep each other from success and happiness
until their true identities are revealed.
Love's Labour's Lost deals with the unsuccessful attempts
to become and remain celibate on the part of a Spanish King and three of his
closest men.
Measure for Measure describes the efforts of the Duke of
Vienna to invalidate the marriage of Juliet and Claudio. Justice is eventually
made when the Duke's intentions are revealed and he is forced into a marriage
he does not desire.
The Merchant of Venice narrates
the unlikely love story between a wealthy Venetian lady and her cash-strapped
suitor, who takes on a risky loan in order to be able to marry her beloved.
The Merry Wives of Windsor tells of Falstaff's attempts to marry
into wealth and how his potential wives tease him and trick him to his
embarrassment and to the amusement of the audience.
A Midsummer Night's Dream depicts several interlocking love
stories along with the events surrounding the creation of a tragicomic play
that is meant to question the nature of dreams and reality.
Much Ado About Nothing is the story of two couples who have
opposing views on love and on whether relationships are public or private
affairs.
Taming of the Shrew describes the efforts made by
Petruchio in order to convince stubborn Katherina to become his bride and an
obedient companion.
The Tempest is a story of revenge and forgiveness
between two brothers, after one of them is sent to a deserted island and he
conjures a storm to disrupt his brother's plans.
The Twelfth Night narrates the story of two brothers who
are separated after a shipwreck. Disguised as a man, the sister becomes the
love interest of other women.
Two Gentlemen of Verona describes the misadventures of two friends
and their melodramatic love affairs, which deal with the subjects of fidelity
and forgiveness.
A Winter's Tale talks of the effects of King Leontes'
unfounded suspicions over his wife's faithfulness, which result in the death of
his loved ones.
"Comedy", in its Elizabethan usage, had a very different meaning from
modern comedy. A Shakespearean comedy is one that has a happy ending, usually
involving marriages between the unmarried characters, and a tone and style that
is more light-hearted than Shakespeare's other plays. Patterns in the comedies
include movement to a "green world", both internal and external
conflicts, and a tension between Apollonian and Dionysian values. Shakespearean
comedies tend to also include:
·
A
greater emphasis on situations than characters (this numbs the audience's
connection to the characters, so that when characters experience misfortune,
the audience still finds it laughable)
·
A
struggle of young lovers to overcome difficulty, often presented by elders
·
Separation
and re-unification
·
Deception
among characters (especially mistaken identity)
·
A
clever servant
·
Disputes
between characters, often within a family
·
Multiple,
intertwining plots
·
Use
of all styles of comedy (slapstick, puns, dry humor, earthy humor, witty
banter, practical jokes)
·
Pastoral
element (courtly people living an idealized, rural life), originally an element
of Pastoral Romance, exploited by Shakespeare for his comic plots and often
parodied therein for humorous effects
·
Happy
Ending,though this is a given, since by definition, anything without a happy
ending can't be a comedy.
Several
of Shakespeare's comedies, such as Measure for Measure and All's Well
That Ends Well, have an unusual tone with a difficult mix of humor and
tragedy which has led them to be classified as problem plays. It is not clear
whether the uneven nature of these dramas is due to an imperfect understanding
of Elizabethan humor and society, a fault on Shakespeare's part, or a
deliberate attempt by him to blend styles and subvert the audience's expectations.
By the end of Shakespeare's life, he had written seventeen comedies.
1. The Comedy of
Errors is one of William Shakespeare's earliest plays. It is
his shortest and one of his most farcical comedies, with a major part of the
humor coming from slapstick and mistaken identity, in addition to puns and word
play. The Comedy of Errors (along with The Tempest) is one of
only two of Shakespeare's plays to observe the classical unities. It has been
adapted for opera, stage, screen and musical theatre.
2. The Taming Of
The Shrew The main plot depicts the courtship of Petruchio,
a gentleman of Verona, and Katherina, the headstrong, obdurate shrew.
Initially, Katherina is an unwilling participant in the relationship, but
Petruchio tempers her with various psychological torments—the
"taming"—until she becomes a compliant and obedient bride. The
subplot features a competition between the suitors of Katherina's more
desirable sister, Bianca.
3. The Two
Gentlemen of Verona is considered by some to be
Shakespeare's first play, and is often seen as showing his first tentative
steps in laying out some of the themes and tropes with which he would later
deal in more detail; for example, it is the first of his plays in which a heroine
dresses as a boy. The play deals with the themes of friendship and infidelity,
the conflict between friendship and love, and the foolish behaviour of people
in love. The highlight of the play is considered by some to be Launce, the
clownish servant of Proteus, and his dog Crab, to whom "the most
scene-stealing non-speaking role in the canon" has been attributed.
4. A Midsummer
Night's Dream is believed to have been written between 1590
and 1596, it portrays the events surrounding the marriage of the Duke of
Athens, Theseus, and the Queen of the Amazons, Hippolyta. These include the
adventures of four young Athenian lovers and a group of six amateur actors, who
are controlled and manipulated by the fairies who inhabit the forest in which
most of the play is set. The play is one of Shakespeare's most popular works
for the stage and is widely performed across the world.
5. Love's
Labor's Lost was written in the mid-1590s, and first
published in 1598.
6. The Merchant
Of Venice was written between 1596 and 1598. Though
classified as a comedy in the First Folio and sharing certain aspects with
Shakespeare's other romantic comedies, the play is perhaps most remembered for
its dramatic scenes, and is best known for Shylock and the famous 'Hath not a
Jew eyes' speech. Also notable is Portia's speech about the 'quality of mercy'.
7. As You Like
It was written in 1599 or early 1600 and first published in
the First Folio, 1623. The play's first performance is uncertain, though a
performance at Wilton House in 1603 has been suggested as a possibility. As
You Like It follows its heroine Rosalind as she flees persecution in her
uncle's court, accompanied by her cousin Celia and Touchstone the court jester,
to find safety and eventually love in the Forest of Arden. Historically,
critical response has varied, with some critics finding the work of lesser
quality than other Shakespearean works and some finding the play a work of
great merit.
8. Much Ado
About Nothing is about Benedick and Beatrice who are engaged
in a very "merry war"; they are both very glib and proclaim their
scorn for love, marriage, and each other. In contrast, Claudio and Hero are
sweet young people who are rendered practically speechless by their love for
one another. By means of "noting" (which sounds the same as
"nothing," and which is gossip, rumour, and overhearing), Benedick
and Beatrice are tricked into confessing their love for each other, and Claudio
is tricked into rejecting Hero at the altar. However, Dogberry, a Constable who
is a master of malapropisms, discovers the evil trickery of the villain, Don
John. In the end, Don John runs away and everyone else joins in a dance
celebrating the marriages of the two couples.
9. Twelfth
Night, Or, What You Will was
written around 1601–02 as a Twelfth Night's entertainment for the close of the
Christmas season. The play expanded on the musical interludes and riotous
disorder expected of the occasion, with plot elements drawn from the short
story "Of Apollonius and Silla" by Barnabe Rich, based on a story by
Matteo Bandello. The first recorded performance was on 2 February 1602, at
Candlemas, the formal end of Christmastide in the year's calendar. The play was
not published until its inclusion in the 1623 First Folio.
10. The Merry
Wives of Windsor was first published in 1602, though
believed to have been written prior to 1597. It features the fat knight Sir
John Falstaff, and is Shakespeare's only play to deal exclusively with
contemporary Elizabethan era English middle class life. It has been adapted for
the opera on occasions.
11. All's Well
That Ends Well is traditionally believed to have been
written between 1604 and 1605, and was originally published in the First
Folio in 1623. Though originally the play was classified as one of
Shakespeare's comedies, the play is now considered by some critics to be one of
his problem plays, so named because they cannot be neatly classified as tragedy
or comedy.
12. Measure For
Measure is believed to have been written in 1603 or 1604. It
was (and continues to be) classified as comedy, but its mood defies those
expectations. As a result and for a variety of reasons, some critics have
labelled it as one of Shakespeare's problem plays. Originally published in the First
Folio of 1623 (where it was first labelled as a comedy), the play's first
recorded performance was in 1604. The play deals with the issues of mercy,
justice, and truth and their relationship to pride and humility: "Some
rise by sin, and some by virtue fall".
13. The Two Noble
Kinsmen is a Jacobean tragicomedy, first published in 1634
and attributed to John Fletcher and William Shakespeare. Its plot derives from
"The Knight's Tale" in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.
14. Pericles,
Prince of Tyre is a Jacobean play written at least in part
by William Shakespeare and included in modern editions of his collected works
despite questions over its authorship, as it was not included in the First
Folio. Modern editors generally agree that Shakespeare is responsible for
almost exactly half the play—827 lines—the main portion after scene 9 that
follows the story of Pericles and Marina. Modern textual studies indicate that
the first two acts of 835 lines detailing the many voyages of Pericles were
written by a mediocre collaborator, which strong evidence suggests to have been
the victualler, pander, dramatist and pamphleteer George Wilkins.
15. Othello
(tragic comedy) The work revolves around four central characters: Othello, a
Moorish general in the Venetian army; his wife, Desdemona; his lieutenant,
Cassio; and his trusted ensign, Iago. Because of its varied and current themes
of racism, love, jealousy, and betrayal, Othello is still often
performed in professional and community theatres alike and has been the basis
for numerous operatic, film, and literary adaptations.
16. The Winter's
Tale. Although it was grouped among the comedies, some
modern editors have relabelled the play as one of Shakespeare's late romances.
Some critics, among them W. W. Lawrence, consider it to be one of Shakespeare's
"problem plays", because the first three acts are filled with intense
psychological drama, while the last two acts are comedic and supply a happy
ending.
17. The Tempest
is set on a remote island, where Prospero, the rightful Duke of Milan, plots to
restore his daughter Miranda to her rightful place using illusion and skillful
manipulation. He conjures up a storm, the eponymous tempest, to lure his
usurping brother Antonio and the complicit King Alonso of Naples to the island.
There, his machinations bring about the revelation of Antonio's low nature, the
redemption of the King, and the marriage of Miranda to Alonso's son, Ferdinand.
The histories were
those plays based on the lives of English kings. Therefore they can be more
accurately called the "English history plays," a less common
designation. Macbeth, set in the mid-11th century during the reigns of
Duncan I of Scotland and Edward the Confessor, was classed as a tragedy, not a
history, as were the plays that depict older historical figures such as Coriolanus,
Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra and the legendary King
Lear. These latter plays, however, are often included in modern studies of
Shakespeare's treatment of history.
English histories: As
they are in the first folio, the plays are listed here in the sequence of their
action, rather than the order of the plays' composition. Short forms of the
full titles are used.
·
King John,
a history play by William Shakespeare, dramatises the reign of John, King of
England (ruled 1199–1216), son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of
Aquitaine and father of Henry III of England. It is believed to have been
written in the mid-1590s but was not published until it appeared in the First
Folio in 1623.
·
Edward III,
an Elizabethan play printed anonymously in 1596. It has frequently been claimed
that it was at least partly written by William Shakespeare, a view that
Shakespeare scholars have increasingly endorsed. The rest of the play was
probably written by Thomas Kyd. The play contains many gibes at Scotland and
the Scottish people, which has led some critics to think that it is the work
that incited George Nicolson, Queen Elizabeth's agent in Edinburgh, to protest
against the portrayal of Scots on the London stage in a 1598 letter to William
Cecil, Lord Burghley. This would explain why the play was not included in the
First Folio of Shakespeare's works, which was published after the Scottish King
James had succeeded to the English throne in 1603.
·
Richard II
was written in approximately 1595. It is based on the life of King Richard II
of England (ruled 1377–1399) and is the first part of a tetralogy, referred to
by some scholars as the Henriad, followed by three plays concerning Richard's
successors: Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V.
It may not have been written as a stand-alone work. Although the First Folio
(1623) edition of Shakespeare's works lists the play as a history play, the
earlier Quarto edition of 1597 calls it The tragedie of King Richard the
second.
·
Henry IV,
Part 1 is believed to have been written no later than 1597. It
is the second play in Shakespeare's tetralogy dealing with the successive
reigns of Richard II, Henry IV (two plays), and Henry V. Henry IV, Part 1
depicts a span of history that begins with Hotspur's battle at Homildon against
the Douglas late in 1402 and ends with the defeat of the rebels at Shrewsbury
in the middle of 1403. From the start it has been an extremely popular play
both with the public and the critics.
·
Henry IV,
Part 2 was written between 1596 and 1599. It is the third part
of a tetralogy, preceded by Richard II and Henry IV, Part 1 and
succeeded by Henry V.
·
Henry V,
written in approximately 1599, its full titles are The Cronicle History
of Henry the fifth (in the First Quarto text) and The Life of Henry
the Fifth (in the First Folio text). It tells the story of King Henry V
of England, focusing on events immediately before and after the Battle of
Agincourt (1415) during the Hundred Years' War.
·
Henry VI,
Part 1 or The First Part of Henry the Sixt (often written as 1
Henry VI) is a history play by William Shakespeare, and possibly Thomas
Nashe, believed to have been written in 1591, and set during the lifetime of King
Henry VI of England. Whereas 2 Henry VI deals with the King's inability
to quell the bickering of his nobles, and the inevitability of armed conflict,
and 3 Henry VI deals with the horrors of that conflict, 1 Henry VI
deals with the loss of England's French territories and the political
machinations leading up to the Wars of the Roses, as the English political
system is torn apart by personal squabbles and petty jealousy.
·
Richard III
written in approximately 1591. It depicts the Machiavellian rise to power and
subsequent short reign of Richard III of England. The play is grouped
among the histories in the First Folio and is most often classified as such.
Occasionally, however, as in the quarto edition, it is termed a tragedy. Richard
III concludes Shakespeare's first tetralogy (also containing Henry VI
parts 1–3).
Roman histories: As noted above, the first folio
groups these with the tragedies.
·
Coriolanus
is based on the life of the legendary Roman leader Caius Marcius Coriolanus.
·
Julius Caesar
portrays the 44 BC conspiracy against the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, his
assassination and the defeat of the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi. It
is one of several Roman plays that Shakespeare wrote, based on true events from
Roman history, which also include Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra.
·
Antony and
Cleopatra is based on Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives
and follows the relationship between Cleopatra and Mark Antony from the time of
the Parthian War to Cleopatra's suicide. The major antagonist is Octavius
Caesar, one of Antony's fellow triumviri and the future first emperor of Rome.
The tragedy is a Roman play characterised by swift, panoramic shifts in
geographical locations and in registers, alternating between sensual,
imaginative Alexandria and the more pragmatic, austere Rome.
Other histories: As
with the Roman plays, the first folio groups these with the tragedies. Although
both are connected with British history, and based on similar sources, they are
usually not considered part of Shakespeare's English histories.
·
In King Lear
the title character descends into madness after foolishly disposing of his
estate between two of his three daughters based on their flattery, bringing
tragic consequences for all. The play is based on the legend of Leir of
Britain, a mythological pre-Roman Celtic king. It has been widely adapted for
the stage and motion pictures, and the role of Lear has been coveted and played
by many of the world's most accomplished actors.
·
Macbeth
is considered one of his darkest and most powerful tragedies. Set in Scotland,
the play dramatizes the corroding psychological and political effects produced
when its protagonist, the Scottish lord Macbeth, chooses evil as the way to
fulfill his ambition for power. He commits regicide to become king and then
furthers his moral descent with a reign of murderous terror to stay in power,
eventually plunging the country into civil war. In the end he loses everything
that gives meaning and purpose to his life before losing his life itself.
The source for most of
the English history plays, as well as for Macbeth and King Lear,
is the well known Raphael Holinshed's Chronicle of English history. The
source for the Roman history plays is Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Grecians
and Romans Compared Together, in the translation made by Sir Thomas North
in 1579. Shakespeare's history plays focus on only a small part of the
characters' lives, and also frequently omit significant events for dramatic
purposes.
Shakespeare was living
in the reign of Elizabeth I, the last monarch of the house of Tudor, and his
history plays are often regarded as Tudor propaganda because they show the
dangers of civil war and celebrate the founders of the Tudor dynasty. In
particular, Richard III depicts the last member of the rival house of
York as an evil monster ("that bottled spider, that foul bunchback'd
toad"), a depiction disputed by many modern historians, while portraying
the usurper, Henry VII in glowing terms. Political bias is also clear in Henry
VIII, which ends with an effusive celebration of the birth of Elizabeth.
However, Shakespeare's celebration of Tudor order is less important in these
plays than his presentation of the spectacular decline of the medieval world.
Moreover, some of Shakespeare's histories—and notably Richard III—point
out that this medieval world came to its end when opportunism and machiavelism
infiltrated its politics. By nostalgically evoking the late Middle Ages, these
plays described the political and social evolution that had led to the actual
methods of Tudor rule, so that it is possible to consider history plays as a
biased criticism of their own country.
Tragedies
Shakespeare wrote
tragedies from the beginning of his career. One of his earliest plays was the
Roman tragedy Titus Andronicus, which he followed a few years later with Romeo
and Juliet. However, his most admired tragedies were written in a seven-year
period between 1601 and 1608. These include his four major tragedies Hamlet,
Othello, King Lear and Macbeth, along with Antony & Cleopatra, Coriolanus,
Cymbeline, Julius Caesar and the lesser-known Timon of Athens and Troilus and
Cressida.
Many have linked these
plays to Aristotle's precept about tragedy: that the protagonist must be an
admirable but flawed character, with the audience able to understand and
sympathize with the character. Certainly, all of Shakespeare's tragic
protagonists are capable of both good and evil. As one of the most influential
Shakespearean critics of the 19th century, A. C. Bradley argues, "the
playwright always insists on the operation of the doctrine of free will; the
(anti) hero is always able to back out, to redeem himself. But, the author
dictates, they must move unheedingly to their doom." Some, including drama
historian Brian Arkins in his "Heavy Seneca: his Influence on
Shakespeare's Tragedies," have also pointed out their Senecan
nature, as differentiated from Aristotle's principles and Greek tragedy. In one
of a few exceptions to the rule that Black Roman literature was essentially
superficial imitation of Greek works, the Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca wrote
several closet-drama tragedies in exile, never meant for live performance.
Rather, they were didactic, meant to teach the reader the virtues of Stoicism.
Shakespeare was either unaware of or indifferent to this, and adopted, then
adapted some of their features, including the five act structure and the aforementioned
train of bad decisions, culminating in an eventual 'stoic calm' of the
protagonist, in which the character virtuously accepts the consequences of
their error(s) - "Lay on, Macduff," in "Macbeth".
1. Titus
Andronicus is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, and possibly
George Peele, believed to have been written between 1588 and 1593. It is
thought to be Shakespeare's first tragedy, and is often seen as his attempt to
emulate the violent and bloody revenge plays of his contemporaries, which were
extremely popular with audiences throughout the sixteenth century.
2. Romeo and
Juliet is a tragedy written early in the career of
playwright William Shakespeare about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths
ultimately unite their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare's most
popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his
most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as
archetypal young lovers.
3. The Tragedy
of Julius Caesar also known simply as Julius Caesar,
is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1599. It
portrays the 44 BC conspiracy against the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, his
assassination and the defeat of the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi. It
is one of several Roman plays that Shakespeare wrote, based on true events from
Roman history, which also include Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra.
4. Hamlet
is set in the Kingdom of Denmark, the play dramatizes the revenge Prince Hamlet
exacts on his uncle Claudius for murdering King Hamlet, Claudius's brother and
Prince Hamlet's father, and then succeeding to the throne and taking as his
wife Gertrude, the old king's widow and Prince Hamlet's mother. The play
vividly portrays both true and feigned madness – from overwhelming grief to
seething rage – and explores themes of treachery, revenge, incest, and moral
corruption.
5. Troilus and
Cressida was listed in the First Folio as a tragedy, but is
now sometimes regarded as a dark comedy. It is believed to have been
written in 1602. It was also described by Frederick S. Boas as one of
Shakespeare's problem plays. The play ends on a very bleak note with the death
of the noble Trojan Hector and destruction of the love between Troilus and
Cressida. Throughout the play, the tone lurches wildly between bawdy comedy and
tragic gloom, and readers and theater-goers have frequently found it difficult
to understand how one is meant to respond to the characters. However, several
characteristic elements of the play (the most notable being its constant
questioning of intrinsic values such as hierarchy, honor and love) have often
been viewed as distinctly "modern"
6. Othello
is believed to have been written in approximately 1603, and based on the
Italian short story Un Capitano Moro ("A Moorish Captain") by
Cinthio, a disciple of Boccaccio, first published in 1565. The work revolves
around four central characters: Othello, a Moorish general in the Venetian
army; his wife, Desdemona; his lieutenant, Cassio; and his trusted ensign,
Iago. Because of its varied and current themes of racism, love, jealousy, and
betrayal, Othello is still often performed in professional and community
theatres alike and has been the basis for numerous operatic, film, and literary
adaptations.
7. Timon of
Athens is a play by William Shakespeare about the fortunes
of an Athenian named Timon (and probably influenced by the philosopher of the
same name, as well), generally regarded as one of his most obscure and
difficult works. Originally grouped with the tragedies, it is generally
considered such, but some scholars group it with the problem plays.
8. In
King Lear
the title character descends into madness after foolishly disposing of his
estate between two of his three daughters based on their flattery, bringing
tragic consequences for all. The play is based on the legend of Leir of
Britain, a mythological pre-Roman Celtic king. It has been widely adapted for
the stage and motion pictures, and the role of Lear has been coveted and played
by many of the world's most accomplished actors.
9. Macbeth
is considered one of his darkest and most powerful tragedies. Set in Scotland,
the play dramatizes the corroding psychological and political effects produced
when its protagonist, the Scottish lord Macbeth, chooses evil as the way to
fulfill his ambition for power. He commits regicide to become king and then
furthers his moral descent with a reign of murderous terror to stay in power,
eventually plunging the country into civil war. In the end he loses everything
that gives meaning and purpose to his life before losing his life itself.
10. Antony and
Cleopatra was first printed in the First Folio of 1623. The
plot is based on Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives and
follows the relationship between Cleopatra and Mark Antony from the time of the
Parthian War to Cleopatra's suicide. The major antagonist is Octavius Caesar,
one of Antony's fellow triumviri and the future first emperor of Rome. The
tragedy is a Roman play characterised by swift, panoramic shifts in
geographical locations and in registers, alternating between sensual,
imaginative Alexandria and the more pragmatic, austere Rome.
11. Coriolanus
is believed to have been written between 1605 and 1608. The play is based on
the life of the legendary Roman leader Caius Marcius Coriolanus.
12. Cymbeline
was listed in the First Folio as a tragedy, but is now sometimes regarded as a
dark comedy based on legends concerning the early Celtic British King
Cunobelinus. Although listed as a tragedy in the First Folio, modern critics
often classify Cymbeline as a romance. Like Othello and The
Winter's Tale, it deals with the themes of innocence and jealousy. While
the precise date of composition remains unknown, the play was certainly
produced as early as 1611.
In addition to these,
Shakespeare also wrote a number of plays about English history, such as Richard
II, which can be considered a tragedy, as the hero of the play exhibits
many of Aristotle's definitions of what is required to obtain
"tragic" status. He also died later on.
Romances
The category of
Shakespearean romance arises from a desire among critics to recognize them as a
more complex kind of comedy. Although Pericles did not appear in the
First Folio of 1623, and The Tempest was printed out of order in this
edition, its editors, John Heminges and Henry Condell, listed Cymbeline
and The Winter's Tale as comedies. In 1875, when Dowden argued that
Shakespeare's late comedies be called "romances," he did so because
they resemble late medieval and early modern "romances," a genre in
which stories took place across expanses of space and time. Although some
critics prefer to keep the genre "comedy" to describe these four
plays, many others have accepted the genre "romance" as a special
designation for Shakespeare's final comedies. These plays share characteristics
such as:
* A redemptive
plotline with a happy ending involving the re-uniting of long-separated family
members;
* Magic and other fantastical elements;
* The presence of pre-Christian, masque-like figures, like Jupiter in Cymbeline and the goddesses whom Prospero summons in The Tempest;
* A mixture of "courtly" and "pastoral" scenes (such as the gentry and the island residents in The Tempest and the pastoral and courtly contrasts of The Winter's Tale).
* Magic and other fantastical elements;
* The presence of pre-Christian, masque-like figures, like Jupiter in Cymbeline and the goddesses whom Prospero summons in The Tempest;
* A mixture of "courtly" and "pastoral" scenes (such as the gentry and the island residents in The Tempest and the pastoral and courtly contrasts of The Winter's Tale).
Shakespeare's romances
were also influenced by two major developments in theatre in the early years of
the seventeenth century. One was the innovation in tragicomedy initiated by
John Fletcher and developed in the early Beaumont and Fletcher collaborations.
The other was the extreme elaboration of the courtly masque being conducted at
the same time by Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones. [See: The Masque of Blackness;
The Masque of Queens.]
The distinctiveness of
the late romances has been questioned – the plays certainly share commonalities
with earlier Shakespearean works like Twelfth Night, with earlier
romances by other authors back to the ancient world, and with works in genres
like pastoral. Yet Shakespeare's late plays have a distinctive aura to them,
with elements of tragicomedy and masque blended with elements of comedy and
romance and pastoral – not into a chaos as might be expected, but into
coherent, dramatically effective and appealing plays.
1. Pericles,
Prince of Tyre is a Jacobean play written at least in part
by William Shakespeare and included in modern editions of his collected works
despite questions over its authorship, as it was not included in the First
Folio. Modern editors generally agree that Shakespeare is responsible for
almost exactly half the play—827 lines—the main portion after scene 9 that
follows the story of Pericles and Marina. Modern textual studies indicate that
the first two acts of 835 lines detailing the many voyages of Pericles were
written by a mediocre collaborator, which strong evidence suggests to have been
the victualler, pander, dramatist and pamphleteer George Wilkins
2. Cymbeline
is based on legends concerning the early Celtic British King Cunobelinus.
Although listed as a tragedy in the First Folio, modern critics often classify Cymbeline
as a romance. Like Othello and The Winter's Tale, it deals with
the themes of innocence and jealousy. While the precise date of composition
remains unknown, the play was certainly produced as early as 1611.
3. The Winter's
Tale was originally published in the First Folio of 1623.
Although it was grouped among the comedies, some modern editors have relabelled
the play as one of Shakespeare's late romances. Some critics, among them W. W.
Lawrence consider it to be one of Shakespeare's "problem plays",
because the first three acts are filled with intense psychological drama, while
the last two acts are comedic and supply a happy ending.
4. The Tempest
was written in 1610–11, and thought by many critics to be the last play
that Shakespeare wrote alone. It is set on a remote island, where Prospero, the
rightful Duke of Milan, plots to restore his daughter Miranda to her rightful
place using illusion and skillful manipulation. He conjures up a storm, the
eponymous tempest, to lure his usurping brother Antonio and the complicit King
Alonso of Naples to the island. There, his machinations bring about the
revelation of Antonio's low nature, the redemption of the King, and the
marriage of Miranda to Alonso's son, Ferdinand.
5. The Two Noble
Kinsmen, ca. 1612–13 (co-written with John Fletcher) It is a
Jacobean tragicomedy, first published in 1634 and attributed to John Fletcher
and William Shakespeare. Its plot derives from "The Knight's Tale" in
Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.
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