Journalism

JOURNALISM

Unit I

What is Journalism? , A Short history of Journalism in India, Principles of  Journalism, Press Codes and Ethics of Journalism, The role played by journalism as part of the mass media

Unit II

Freedom of Press, Threats to Press Freedom, Government and the Press, Press Laws   - Defamation, Libel, contempt of Court, Copyright laws, Press Regulation Act, Press Registration Act,  Law of Privileges

Unit III

The role of the Reporter, Sub Editor, Editor, News  -   News Reports  - Types -  Straight, Interpretive, Investigative, Scoop, Sting, Reporting, Headlines, Editing, Editorial, Feature Writing, Personal Column , Reviews, Interviews, Press conference, Reporting  -  News Values,  human interest, story angle, obituaries.

Unit IV

Layout,-  Aims – Designing –Types  - Advertisements –Types –Advertising and social responsibility, Editing, Proof Reading, Photographic Journalism, Cartoon, News Agencies, , Press Council of India,

Exercises: Editing , Proof Reading , Feature Writing, News Reporting, Planning interviews, Reviews

                                                      Unit I: What is Journalism?

        The words ‘Journalist’, ‘Journal’ and ‘Journalism’ are derived from the French word ‘Journal’, which in turn comes from the Latin terms ‘diurnals’ or ‘daily’. Journalism is a form of writing that tells people about things that really happened, but that they might not have known about already. People who write journalism are called journalists. They might work at newspapers, magazines, and websites or for TV or radio stations .The most important characteristic shared by good journalists is curiosity. Good journalists love to read and want to find out as much as they can about the world around them.

                                                              Principles of Journalism

In 1997, an organization then administered by PEJ, the Committee of Concerned Journalists, began a national conversation among citizens and news people to identify and clarify the principles that underlie journalism. After four years of research, including 20 public forums around the country, a reading of journalism history, a national survey of journalists, and more, the group released a Statement of Shared Purpose that identified nine principles. These became the basis for The Elements of Journalism, the book by PEJ Director Tom Rosenstiel and CCJ Chairman and PEJ Senior Counselor Bill Kovach. Here are those principles, as outlined in the original Statement of Shared Purpose.

A Statement of Purpose

After extended examination by journalists themselves of the character of journalism at the end of the 20th century, we offer this common understanding of what defines our work. The central purpose of journalism is to provide citizens with accurate and reliable information they need to function in a free society.

            This encompasses myriad roles--helping define community, creating common language and

common knowledge, identifying a community's goals, Hero's and villains, and pushing people

beyond complacency. This purpose also involves other requirements, such as being entertaining,

serving as watchdog and offering voice to the voiceless.

Over time journalists have developed nine core principles to meet the task. They comprise what

might be described as the theory of journalism:

1. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth

           Democracy depends on citizens having reliable, accurate facts put in a meaningful context. Journalism does not pursue truth in an absolute or philosophical sense, but it can--and must—pursue it in a practical sense. This "journalistic truth" is a process that begins with the professional discipline of assembling and verifying facts. Then journalists try to convey a fair and reliable account of their meaning, valid for now, subject to further investigation. Journalists should be as transparent as possible about sources and methods so audiences can make their own assessment of the information. Even in a world of expanding voices, accuracy is the foundation upon which everything else is built--context, interpretation, comment, criticism, analysis and debate. The truth, over time, emerges from this forum. As citizens encounter an ever greater flow of data, they have more need--not less--for identifiable sources dedicated to verifying that information and putting it in context.

2. Its first loyalty is to citizens

         While news organizations answer too many constituencies, including advertisers and shareholders, the journalists in those organizations must maintain allegiance to citizens and the larger public interest above any other if they are to provide the news without fear or favor. This commitment to citizens first is the basis of a news organization's credibility, the implied covenant that tells the audience the coverage is not slanted for friends or advertisers. Commitment to citizens also means journalism should present a representative picture of all constituent groups in society. Ignoring certain citizens has the effect of disenfranchising them. The theory underlying the modern news industry has been the belief that credibility builds a broad and loyal audience, and that economic success follows in turn. In that regard, the business people in a news organization also must nurture--not exploit--their allegiance to the audience ahead of other considerations.

3. Its essence is a discipline of verification

Journalists rely on a professional discipline for verifying information. When the concept of objectivity originally evolved, it did not imply that journalists are free of bias. It called, rather, for a consistent method of testing information--a transparent approach to evidence--precisely so that personal and cultural biases would not undermine the accuracy of their work. The method is objective, not the journalist. Seeking out multiple witnesses, disclosing as much as possible about sources, or asking various sides for comment, all signal such standards. This discipline of verification is what separates journalism from other modes of communication, such as propaganda, fiction or entertainment. But the need for professional method is not always fully recognized or refined. While journalism has developed various techniques for determining facts, for instance, it has done less to develop a system for testing the reliability of journalistic interpretation.

4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover

Independence is an underlying requirement of journalism, a cornerstone of its reliability. Independence of spirit and mind, rather than neutrality, is the principle journalists must keep in focus. While editorialists and commentators are not neutral, the source of their credibility is still their accuracy, intellectual fairness and ability to inform--not their devotion to a certain group or outcome. In our independence, however, we must avoid any tendency to stray into arrogance, elitism, isolation or nihilism.

5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power

Journalism has an unusual capacity to serve as watchdog over those whose power and position most affects citizens. The Founders recognized this to be a rampart against despotism when they ensured an independent press; courts have affirmed it; citizens rely on it. As journalists, we have an obligation to protect this watchdog freedom by not demeaning it in frivolous use or exploiting it for commercial gain.

6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise

         

            The news media are the common carriers of public discussion, and this responsibility forms a basis for our special privileges. This discussion serves society best when it is informed by facts rather than prejudice and supposition. It also should strive to fairly represent the varied viewpoints and interests in society, and to place them in context rather than highlight only the conflicting fringes of debate. Accuracy and truthfulness require that as framers of the public discussion we not neglect the points of common ground where problem solving occurs.

7. It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant

           Journalism is storytelling with a purpose. It should do more than gather an audience or catalogue the important. For its own survival, it must balance what readers know they want with what they cannot anticipate but need. In short, it must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant. The effectiveness of a piece of journalism is measured both by how much a work engages its audience and enlightens it. This means journalists must continually ask what information has most value to citizens and in what form. While journalism should reach beyond such topics as government and public safety, a journalism overwhelmed by trivia and false significance ultimately engenders a trivial society.

8. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional

            Keeping news in proportion and not leaving important things out are also cornerstones of truthfulness. Journalism is a form of cartography: it creates a map for citizens to navigate society. Inflating events for sensation, neglecting others, stereotyping or being disproportionately negative all make a less reliable map. The map also should include news of all our communities, not just those with attractive demographics. This is best achieved by newsrooms with a diversity of backgrounds and perspectives. The map is only an analogy; proportion and comprehensiveness are subjective, yet their elusiveness does not lessen their significance.

9. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience

            Every journalist must have a personal sense of ethics and responsibility--a moral compass. Each of us must be willing, if fairness and accuracy require, to voice differences with our colleagues, whether in the newsroom or the executive suite. News organizations do well to nurture this independence by encouraging individuals to speak their minds. This stimulates the intellectual diversity necessary to understand and accurately cover an increasingly diverse society. It is this diversity of minds and voices, not just numbers that matters.

JOURNALISM IN INDIA

Augustus Hickeys started this ‘Bengal Gazette’ in 1780 in Calcutta. James Silk Buckingham was a progressive thinker and writer of eminence. His ‘Calcutta Chronicle’, which appeared on October 2,1818, showed the way for future journalism in India. The editor was a staunch believer in the freedom of the press. He fearlessly condemned social evils like sati and criticized the Government for its inefficiency in curbing superstitions among people. Raja Rammohan Roy gave him moral strength. The forthright approach of this great English journalist annoyed the rulers of that day and the result was Buckingham was deported. If Calcutta gave birth to Indian journalism, Bombay became the hub of social reform. Dadabhai Naoroji, Behram Malabari, M.G.Ranade and a few others began reforming society with the help of their writings and speeches. Dadabhai Naoroji’s own monthly journal, ‘The Voice of India’ came out on February 1,1882 aiming at securing fair hearing and justice for India.

‘The Hindu’ of Madras started in 1878 as a weekly by G.Subramaniya Iyer and his enthusiastic team supported the raising of the age for marriage from 10 to 12 years. In those days it was thought an unorthodox and rebellious view, not consistent with the ideas of the leaders of the Indian society. G.Subramaniya Iyer respected and prestigious of the English dailies of India, still holds sway over the educated and the enlightened. This newspaper under the editorship of such stalwarts as N.Ram has done great service to the nation.

‘The Madras Times’ started in 1860 came out again in 1868 as ‘The Madras Mail’. It became simply ‘The Mail’ in 1950 and remains the oldest of the English newspapers from Madras. It had been serving the cause of the European and other English speaking communities in and around Madras. Charles Lawson and Henry Cornish and several other Europeans served on the board of this famous newspaper. For many years, ‘The Mail’ as an evening newspaper held sway over the educated middle class people in Madras.

‘The Pioneer’ was started in Allahabad in 1861. During the years, 1907-1908 there were many prosecutions and confiscations in which journalists were involved. Balagangadara Tilak who was the editor of ‘Kesari’(Marathi) was jailed in Andamans and Aurobindo Ghosh, Editor of ‘Bande Mataram’ sought asylum in Pondicherry.

Annie Besant launched Home Rule League in 1916 and started her newspapers, a weekly and a daily. Mrs. Besant opposed repressive laws of the British Government. ‘New India’ of Mrs.Besant propagated freedom to the people through Home Rule Movement. Madan Mohan Malviya established ‘Leader’ in Allahabad in 1909, which reached great heights under the editorship of C.Y.Chandramani. Mahatma Gandhi’s ‘Young India’ played a dominant role in awakening the masses of India.

ETHICS OF JOURNALISM AND PRESS CODES

As journalism has remained for years a recognizably unregulated occupation unlike law, medicine and industry, there has been no central authority to control the working of journalists. The interference of the state in the field of journalism was practically nil and so journalists themselves have formulated the self regulating ethical standards. In Britain, in 1947, the Press Council was established and the media came under some sort of regulation. Between 1060 and 1967 there were widespread complaints about the liberalism among the journalists of England. The Criminal Justice Act of 1967 restricted the reporting of the court cases, which many journalists saw as a major breach of the principle of open justice. A few journalist were jailed for refusing to divulge the sources of the information vital in court cases. The tabloid journalism came to the forefront around 1980’s. ‘The Daily Mirror’ and the other British newspapers began publishing stories, which were in the previous year considered unworthy of publication. There was a rivalry among the newspapers to secure sensational stories since they changed the fortunes of the newspaper business. This trend came to be known as ‘cheque-book journalism’. The stories were a mix of sex, royalty and the aristocracy. There were more fabrications than the actual happenings. There was a great revival of public taste for such unfounded, unethical and illegal stories. ‘The Sun’ specialized in this area and was the most successful venture among the British newspapers. In this context attempts were made by MP’s to introduce press regulations in the form of legislation. Many more such press intrusions into the private lives of the top people in the country led to the restrictions on the journalists.

This activity of imposing restriction on the press freedom gained momentum with the police, prosecutors and the public taking their cases of libel to the courts. Photographers were arrested, journalists were searched and their houses raided. There were pressures on the journalist community to think a little more on what they do, the effect it can have on their fellow citizens and the impact their work has on the reputation of the press. Even in America there was interest in journalistic ethics. In April 1994 the National Union of Journalists(NUJ) organized a conference on ethics which was attended by more than 100 participants. In journalism courses conducted by universities ethics found an important place.

NUJ Code of Conduct:

The rules of ethics given below can be understood as general code of conduct to journalists all over the world. Students of journalism find these rules helpful in the pursuit of their careers.

-          A journalist has a duty to maintain the highest professional and ethical standards.

-          A journalist shall at all times defend the principle of the freedom of the Press and other media in relation to the collection of information and the expression of comment and criticism. He/she shall strive to eliminate distortion, news suppression and censorship.

-          A journalist shall strive to ensure that the information he/she disseminates is fair and accurate, avoid the expression of comment and conjecture as established fact and falsification by distortion, selection or misrepresentation.

-          A journalist shall rectify promptly any harmful inaccuracies, ensure that correction and apologies receive due prominence and afford the right of reply to persons criticized when the issue is of sufficient importance.

-          A journalist shall obtain information, photographs and illustrations only by straightforward means. The use of other means can be justified only by overriding considerations of the public interest. The journalist is entitled to exercise personal considerations of the public interest. The journalist is entitled to exercise a personal conscientious objection to the use of such means.

-          Subject to the justification by over-riding considerations of the public interest, a journalist shall do nothing, which entails intrusion into private grief and distress.

-          A journalist shall protect confidential sources of information.

-          A journalist shall not accept bribes nor shall he/she allow other inducements to influence the performance of his/her professional duties.

-          A journalist shall not lend himself/herself to the distortion or suppression of the truth because of advertising or other considerations.

-          A journalist shall only mention a person’s age, race, colour, creed, illegitimacy, disability, marital status(or lack of it), gender or sexual orientation if this information is strictly relevant. A journalist shall neither originate nor process material, which encourages discrimination, ridicule, prejudice or hatred on any of the above-mentioned grounds.

-          A journalist shall not take private advantage of information gained in the course of his/her duties, before the information is public knowledge.

-          A journalist shall not by way of statement, voice or appearances endorse by advertisement any commercial product or services save for the promotion of his/her own work or of the medium by which he/she is employed.

THE PRESS AND THE SOCIETY

Long back Walter Lippman pointed out that news and truth were different. He said that news foresees an event and truth brings to light the hidden facts. Man can act after knowing the truth not after knowing the news. According to Lippman, the public should rely more on truthful presentation and interpretation and for this purpose they should depend on institutions other than the press. After Lippman, many have come to the defence of the society relegating the press to the background. Unless an institution is socially relevant it cannot fulfill the essential needs of the society. Press is such an institution, and if it loses its social appeal it becomes irrelevant to society. 
           

India is a vast country with more than a billion people living in it, but the circulation of our newspapers is found to be very low. Not even 10% of the population is reading newspapers. The number of buyers of newspapers would be lower than that percentage. The consumption of newsprint in India stands very low in comparison with that of the Western countries. Sometimes ago, the editor of the Planning Commission’s Journal made a survey of the developmental issues published in Indian newspapers and reported that the space covered by them indicates how the newspaper managers are indifferent to a large section of the society.
           

It is a common knowledge that all the important newspapers in India published more political and sensational news than the news related to the planning and development of society. The importance given to parliamentary debates and political intrigues by our newspapers is evident to the regular readers. One can find more features based on rural development, rural industries, animal husbandry, irrigation, household planning and welfare of children. Welfare measures to be taken in remote villages like solving problems of water scarcity, electricity failures, lack of communication should find place in all newspapers. Social issues, according to the Department of Journalism, Osmania University, find no place in major English newspapers. It is an open secret that most of our popular newspapers in English are urban-oriented or bureaucrat-oriented or white-collared oriented rather than society-oriented.

            There is some truth in the criticism that the newspapers of today are distinctly separated from the masses of India. We cannot blame the newspapers in India for publishing more political news because all these newspapers took part in the struggle for independence and the revolutionary political fervor has not died down yet. There is also some amount of affinity between the politicians and the proprietors of important newspapers. This is due to the fact that political parties in India either run or patronize news channels and newspapers.

Unit II:   FREEDOM OF PRESS

Freedom of Press under Constitution (Press at par excellence): “A Free press stands as one of the great interpreters between the Government and the People. To allow it to be fettered is to fetter over selves. ‘Freedom’ means absence of control, interference or restrictions. Hence, the expression ‘Freedom of Press’ means the right to print and publish without any interference from the state or any other public authority. But this, Freedom, like other freedoms, cannot be absolute but is subject to well known exceptions acknowledge in the public interest, which in India are enumerate in Article 19 of the constitution.”

         The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers"
Besides legal definitions, some non-governmental organizations use other criteria to judge the level of press freedom around the world:

• Reporters without Borders considers the number of journalists murdered, expelled or harassed, and the existence of a state monopoly on TV and radio, as well as the existence of censorship and self-censorship in the media, and the overall independence of media as well as the difficulties that foreign reporters may face.

• The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) uses the tools of journalism to help journalists by tracking press freedom issues through independent research, fact-finding missions, and firsthand contacts in the field, including local working journalists in countries around the world. CPJ shares information on breaking cases with other press freedom organizations worldwide through the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, a global e-mail network. CPJ also tracks journalist deaths and detentions. CPJ staff applies strict criteria for each case; researchers independently investigate and verify the circumstances behind each death or imprisonment.

• Freedom House likewise studies the more general political and economic environments of each nation in order to determine whether relationships of dependence exist that limit in practice the level of press freedom that might exist in theory. So the concept of independence of the press is one closely linked with the concept of press freedom.

PRESS LAWS

          Press Laws are the laws concerning the licensing of books and the liberty of expression in all products of the printing-press, especially newspapers. The liberty of the press has always been regarded by political writers as of supreme importance. Give me liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all other liberties, says Milton in the ‘Areopagitica’.

Libel:  Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, or in any form other than by spoken words or gestures.

Contempt of Court:  Contempt of Court includes: charging the judge with unreasonability and inability, expressing doubts on the prestige, status, rights or fairness of the judiciary, publication of any comment on the matters, which are under the proceedings of the court and which may mislead the general public and which, lead them to be prejudiced, to cast aspersion or to attempt in influence or the judge, jury, advocates or witness of nay matters which are under the proceeding of the court, to interfere in the judicial administration, to threat the witnesses, to attempt to obstruct in the police inquiry against the order of the judge, publication of the proceedings of the court or the publications of the picture of the accused, publication of the report of the proceedings of the court and distorting the facts, etc.,

Copyright Laws: What a man produces by the application of his labour, intellect, or skill is his property. The creator has right to his properties. The Law of Copyright creates a further statutory intangible right of property in respect of such product if it is an original work. The possibility of its misuse has increased with efficient coping in mechanism. Anybody by copying others work can not only earn money but also serve his own interest. When any person, without a license granted by the owner of the copyright or the Registrar of Copyrights under this Actor in contravention of the conditions of a license so granted or of any condition imposed by a competent authority under this Act does anything the exclusive right to di which is by this Act conferred upon the owner of the copyright.

Law of Privilege:   Reporter’s Privilege in the United States is a “reporter’s protection under constitutional or statutory law, from being compelled to testify about confidential information or sources.

The Press and Registration of Books Act 1867
        According to this Act the newspapers submit two copies of a newspaper soon after its publication to the government free of charge. The earliest surviving enactment specifically directed towards the press was passed in 1867, the Press and Registration of Books Act (PRB Act) (XXV of 1867). During the reign of the British Government in India writing of books and other inform related material took a concrete shape and with the advent of printing presses various books on almost all the subjects and periodicals touching every aspect of life started appearing. Thrust on education gave an impetus to this with the result that lot of printed material became available. Those in the field of writing, publishing and printing gave a thought to organize a system for keeping a record of the publications. The then East India Company was urged to keep a record of the publications. An attempt was made by the authorities to make a collection of the books and other publications emanating from the various printing presses throughout India. Board of Directors of East India Company issued an instruction that copies of every important and interesting work published in India should be dispatched to England to be deposited in the library of India House. Such an instruction had a slow impact. Again the Royal Asiatic Society in London urged the then Secretary of State for India to repeat the instruction of the late Board of Directors of East India Company and also desired that catalogs of all the works published in India should be sent to England. A system of voluntary registrations of publications was evolved but it failed. It was found necessary to establish a system of compulsory sale to Government, of three copies of each work in India. To achieve this purpose a Bill was introduced in the Legislature for the regulation of printing presses and newspaper for the preservation of copies of books and periodicals containing news printed in the whole of India and for the registration of such books and periodicals containing news. The objective was however not to establish governmental control over the freedom of the Press. It was a regulatory law which enabled Government to regulate printing presses and newspapers by a system of registration and to preserve copies of books and other matter printed in India. A number of minor amendments were made in the Act from time to time to make the Sections/Clauses compatible with the changing situation, particularly after Independence. But major amendments were carried out in 1955 following the recommendations of the First Press Commission in 1953, consequent upon which the Office of the Registrar of Newspapers of India (RNI) was created and started function.

                       Unit III:  THE ROLE OF A REPORTER IN A NEWSPAPER

        

          The reporter is a very important person in the newspaper organization. He makes the newspaper or mars it. While doing his job he should show speed, clarity and accuracy. So these three are called the pillars of reporting. Time and tide waits for no one. It is so with the news. Delayed news becomes stale and worthless. He is comparable to Sage Naradha, the ideal reporter of important events in the universe. He is said to have appeared in places all over the world where important events occurred.

         The reporter should have the best qualities of a detective, a psychologist and a lawyer. Over the years reporters develop in them the ability and faculty to sense news and bring it out. Take the case of Winston Churchill and Ernest Hemingway the Journalist turned novelists. A month after an atom bomb destroyed Hiroshima, the reporter of ‘The Daily Express’- London – Wilfred Burchett described the devastating effects caused by the atomic radiation which made the world turn against atomic warfare.

          Though journalists do not agree that there should be prescribed qualification for the reporters, the reporter should have some general education and a good knowledge of history, geography and current affairs. Without a sound knowledge of the history of a region, reporters cannot cover events occurring in those regions. A reporter with average education standard has to limit himself to cover some local or municipal news. A well-educated reporter may turn out to be an efficient Court Reporter or Crime Reporter.Specialization is essential in the field of reporting. Some reporters started as sports reporters and turned out to be popular columnist at the end. In country like India it is very important for the reporters to learn as many languages as possible so as to have very good access to native politicians.

Reporters:

         1. The essential act of journalism is gathering information. This is done by Reporters.

         2. Deadline: the time when a story is due.

         3. Interview: the way in which much information for journalism is gathered; reporters talk with sources(people who have information) in person, by telephone, by email, or any number of other ways of communicating.

         4. Beat: the area or subject that a reporter regularly covers and writes stories about, such as the police beat or education beat.

         5. Editors oversee and direct the activities of reporters. Few people in journalism work alone. Many people are involved in the process of gathering and disseminating information.

         6. Journalists must adhere to a personal standard of integrity; they must be able to deal honestly with their sources and they must be able to evaluate information honestly.

         7. Journalists must pay attention to details – the exact spelling of someone’s name, the exact time that something happened, and so on.

THE ROLE OF THE SUB-EDITOR

            Sub-Editors are not as well-known as Editors or News Editors, but they carry more responsibility in dispensing the news and the articles. They always work in the backyard of the establishment. They work hard gathering and selecting material. They are the real craftsmen among journalists, because they make newspaper material very attractive by giving a proper shape. The imprint of the sub-editor can be found all over the newspaper and without the artistic ability of this person newspapers will not be interesting. News items, features and various articles become colourful, dramatic and readable when they come through the cutting edge of this experienced craftsman. Today the flow of news is ever increasing in quantity and it is the job of the sub-editor to choose the best among the raw material and shape it as a consumable product.

The tasks performed by the ‘subs’ are of many types:

-           The raw news has to be polished with his craftsmanship in bringing out the finished product.

-           He has to re-write manuscripts when they are sent by writers not accustomed to journalistic way of presentation(scientists, economists, educationists, sportsmen)

-           He should improve stories with his creativity since most stores contain unnecessary wordings, which may eat away the precious space.

-           He should also check-up the accuracy of the news or articles so that the editor may not be questioned by the authorities or the public.

-           He should see that stories, leads, etc., conform to the journalistic ethics.

The Role of the Editor

         The name of the editor appears at the bottom of the newspaper. If a newspaper goes against the Press laws, the man held responsible is the editor. There would be pressures on an editor from all sides – the government, the boss of the organization, the industrial circle of the country, etc, drag him towards them. Under these circumstances, the editor should strengthen his will-power and act according to his conscience.

         

         One cannot expect editors to be masters of everything in India or elsewhere in the world. Some editors may not have specialized knowledge of economics or science. They may not have time to cope with new developments in several fields of activity. It is the capacity of the editor to allot work to his sub-editors and reporters that counts for the success of the newspaper. The editor should know who among his staff is competent to write on a particular theme.

         In most newspapers, the ‘morning conference’ usually held around a coffee table is an important occasion for the editor to spot his talented leader writers. He should also know more about his reporters and the places they should visit for the reportage. As the leader of the newspaper, the imprint of the editor is found on all aspects – editorials, news reports, features, commentaries and articles by external writers the editor should also see that his newspaper becomes a viable venture and for this purpose he should control the advertisement department and circulation department. Like a commander taking on the spot decisions for the defence of the country, the editor should be able to take quick decisions on the matters of the day.

         It is important for an editor to be aware of the needs of the public. An editor who fails to feel the pulse of the public will be a failure. His job consists in building public opinion for the safety and honour of the nation. If something goes wrong either in the government or in private sector, it is the job of the editor to express his unbiased and daring opinion to arrest the trend and also bring it before the public eye. This responsibility of the editor may place him in difficulties, but he cannot escape his professional responsibility. Editors should also build up credibility of their views among the public. The public turns to them in times of crisis. It is the duty of the editor to come to the rescue of the public and save them from stress and uncertainty.

                                                      TYPES OF NEWS REPORTING

INTERPRETATIVE REPORTING: ‘Interpretative reporting’, as the phrase suggests, combines facts with interpretation. It delves into reasons and meanings of a development. It is the interpretative reporter’s task to give the information along with an interpretation of its significance. In doing so he uses his knowledge and experience to give the reader an idea of the background of an event and explain the consequences it could lead to. Besides his own knowledge and research in the subject, he often has to rely on the opinion of specialists to do a good job. Interpretative reporting thus goes behind the news, brings out the hidden significance of an event and separates truth from falsehood.

INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING: It is difficult to define the term ‘investigative’ journalism. Some newspapers scoff at the very idea of an investigative journalist. In one way, of course, ‘investigative’ journalism is a redundant concept, since all stories require some kind of investigation on the part of the reporter. However, the investigative reporter is expected to dig deeply beyond the facts stated in the hard news.

Investigative Reporting has three elements: (i) It has to be the own work of the reporter. Under no circumstance should it be of others; (ii) The subject of the reporting should be such that it is of importance for the readers to know, and (iii) There must not be any attempt made to hide the truth from the people.

In the pursuit of his quarry, the investigative reporter must draw a line between candid reporting and character assassination. He should base his report on incontrovertible facts, not on half-truths and lies. He should be wary of lobbies and lobbyists, political or commercial – trying to misguide him. And he should not behave like a peep tom or a prosecutor.

The best kind of investigative reporting is that which keeps the public interest in mind. It may highlight an injustice, expose corrupt practices or unmask dishonest politicians and bureaucrats.

STRAIGHT / OBJECTIVE REPORTING:  Reporting of news, unlike editorial writing is often described as a coldly impersonal job. A reporter is essentially a story teller and he should tell the story in an objective and truthful manner, without lacing it with personal opinions or subjective comments. He should be fair and impartial and present both sides of the story.

Complete objectivity is a mere concept. The reporter is a human being, not a robot, and he has certain ideas, feelings, attitudes, opinions and prejudices. However a good reporter should try to rise above them and tell the facts as he has collected them in his search for truth.

SCOOP: A scoop is an exclusive news story broken by a single journalist or a group of journalists working together. Good scoops will attract a great deal of attention for the journalists and newspapers involved, with most major papers urging their staffs to get as many scoops as possible to add to the paper's prestige and perceived value. When a journalist manages to swoop in on a major story ahead of other journalists, he or she is said to have “scooped” the competition.

         Scoops can take a wide variety of forms. Many relate to scandals and secret information, which by their very nature tend to be greeted with intense interest when they are exposed on the news. The story may also simply be important or particularly exciting; major breaking news is often a scoop. For example, the first newspaper to report on a major natural disaster may consider their reporting to be a scoop, as will the public, which will flock to the paper for more information while its competitors scramble to keep up.

STING: A sting operation is an operation designed to catch a person committing a crime by means of  deception or exposing a wrong deed by a hidden camera.  Sting operations are just one of the tools of investigative journalism.

          Sting operations are a matter of contention because there are myriad questions of ethics, which are very subjective. Traditionally, the role of the media has been that of a ‘watchdog’. With the coming of the TV, that role has begun to change-infotainment is a necessity. The media saw sting operations as a news strategy that would fulfill their role of a ‘watchdog’ at the same time provide a sense of entertainment. Sting operations make people sit up and watch.  The problem is that, somewhere the distinction between exposing a wrongdoing and sensationalizing it is lost. Another common contention is that sting operations are an invasion of an individual’s privacy. The problem is compounded by the lack of a commonly accepted definition of privacy. Right to privacy in India is derived both from the common law and the constitutional law (Article 21). But when we discuss Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression of the media in the same length as the privacy of an individual, we reach a deadlock. In that, there cannot be a rule to place one above the other at all times.

News Conference:    A news conference or press conference is a media event in which news makers invite journalists to hear them speak and, most often, ask questions.

Personal column:   A columnist is someone who writes for publication in a series, creating an article that usually offers commentary and opinions. Readers often open a publication with an expectation of reading another short essay by a specific writer who offers a personal point of view. In some instances, a column has been written by a composite or a team, appearing under a pseudonym, or (in effect) a brand name. Some columnists appear on a daily or weekly basis and later reprint the same material in book collections. In defining a column, Dictionary.com provides a breakdown of a few popular subjects covered by columnists: A regular feature or series of articles in a newspaper, magazine, or the like, usually having a readily identifiable heading and the byline of the writer or editor, that reports or comments upon a particular field of interest, as politics, theater or etiquette, or which may contain letters from readers, answers to readers' queries, etc

HUMAN INTEREST STORIES: Much of the news is focused on presenting us with facts and statistics, which may admittedly get a little boring unless you have a keen interest in the subject. While we may be very interested in the latest presidential polls, something that may cause cancer, a food recall, or what the weather will be like tomorrow, news sources like newspapers, magazines and television shows may also want to put a “human face” on the news by covering a story more in depth. Sometimes called the story behind the story or an emotional news story, the human interest story may look at news in a more personal way, especially by interviewing people affected or creating a report on one or several people facing challenges that have been covered in the news. The goal is to engage us emotionally in presentation of the news.

         It’s common to see at least one human interest story on a nightly news broadcast or in your morning newspaper. A newspaper might be covering home foreclosure rates and have an article that deals with statistics regarding them. To flesh out this story and offer greater coverage, they might then feature an article on a few people in the neighborhood who are experiencing a home foreclosure. Emphasis would be on the personal effects of such a difficult experience, and would be likely to raise readers’ understanding about how the “facts and numbers” on home foreclosure were really working in their community.

          Unlike in straight journalism, where it is hoped that journalists will remain objective, human interest stories may be more flexibly written. Sometimes details of a human interest story are so intense, that the journalist hardly needs to insert any editorial information. At other times, coverage of these stories has a decided slant, and the decision to include a human interest story to flesh out other reports may be deliberate. Putting a human face on bare facts can move an audience to react in a certain way, and push an agenda by the media source that isn’t at all objective. There’s some contention that these stories shouldn’t make it into objective journalism at all, but many people find them beneficial, moving or entertaining diversions from bare facts news.     A human interest story doesn’t have to be deeply moving, and may be added more for entertainment value. A news story about a presidential candidate’s favorite vegetable, or his or her daily workout really isn’t “news” in the traditional sense. Other stories that can make it into the news may be unrelated to news content and provide a needed break from the “if it bleeds it leads” style of journalism. For instance, Anton the Amazing Squirrel who has learned to build with dominoes, might be added as a human interest story that adds levity to a broadcast or newspaper that primarily covers murders, dangerous statistics, and reports on the negative aspects of the country. 

Editorial: (1) An article written by, or on behalf of, an editor, giving the news organisation’s opinion on an issue. (2) An adjective describing issues relating to news content as opposed to advertising or other non-news aspects of a newspaper or magazine.

Headline or head:  A word or short phrase in large type at the top of an article designed to either summarise the news or grab the reader’s attention and make them want to read it. In broadcasting, headlines are short summaries of a few important stories that will follow in full in the bulletin. Closing headlines come at the end of a bulletin.

Feature: A longer article or radio story, usually in greater depth and complexity than a simple news item. Features may grow from a current news event or simply be examining a timeless issue. Features which are not strongly connected to hard news events are often called soft features. In radio, features usually have a mixture of elements, including the reporter’s voice, interviews and other sounds. Longer features may be called documentaries.

Human interest story: A news story or feature which focuses on individual people and the effects of issues or events on them. Human interest stories are often used to make ideas more real and concrete in the minds of the viewer, reader or listener. Human interest stories can also cover unusual and interesting aspects of other people's lives which are not particularly significant to society as a whole.

Obituary: An article summarizing the life and achievements of a person recently dead.

Angle: Short for news angle, it is that aspect of a story which a journalist chooses to highlight and develop. Usually the most newsworthy of its key points

                                                      Unit IV: LAYOUT

         Edmund Arnold is widely credited as the father of modern newspaper design. News design is the process of arranging material on a  newspaper page, according to editorial and graphical guidelines and goals. Main editorial goals include the ordering of news stories by order of importance, while graphical considerations which includes readability and balanced, unobtrusive incorporation of advertising.

         The era of modern newspapers begins in the mid-nineteenth century, with the Industrial Revolution, and increased capacities for printing and distribution. Over time, improvements in printing technology, graphical design, and editorial standards have led to changes and improvements in the look and readability of newspapers. Nineteenth-century newspapers were often densely packed with type, often arranged vertically, with multiple headlines for each article. A number of the same technological limitations persisted until the advent of digital typesetting and pagination in late 20th century.

         Designers typically use desktop publishing software to arrange the elements on the pages directly. In the past, before digital pre-press pagination, designers used precise "lay out dummies" to direct the exact layout of elements for each page.

A complete layout dummy was required for designating proper column widths by which a typesetter would set type, and arrange columns of text. Layout also required the calculation of lengths of copy (text in "column inches"), for any chosen width.

         Much of the variance and incoherence of early newspapers was due to the fact that last minute corrections were exclusively handled by typesetters. With photographic printing process, typesetting gave way to paste-up, whereby columns of type were printed by machines (phototypesetters) on high-resolution film for paste-up on photographed final prints. These prints in turn were "shot to negative" with a large format production camera —directly to steel-emulsion photographic plates.

Though paste-up put an end to cumbersome typesetting, this still required planned layouts and set column widths. Photographic plates are (still) wrapped on printing drums to directly apply ink tone newsprint(paper). In the mid 1990s, the paste-up process gave way to the direct to plate process, where computer-paginated files were optically transmitted directly to the photographic plate. Replacing several in-between steps in newspaper production, direct to plate pagination allowed for much more flexibility and precision than before. Designers today still used column grid layouts only with layout software, such as Adobe InDesign or Quark.

         Designers choose photo sizes and headline sizes (both the size of the letters and how much space the headline will take). They may decide what articles will go on which pages, and where on the page, alone or in consultation with editors. They may choose typefaces for special pages, but newspapers usually have a design style that determines most routine uses.

                                                               ADVERTISEMENT

What is advertisement?
         The purpose of advertisement is to convey visual or oral messages to the public thus influencing them either to buy goods or services or to act favourable towards ideas, institutions, etc. This advertisement activity is different from propaganda and publicity, because advertising is a commercial transaction where the advertiser is clearly identified. The advertiser pays some amount and incurs expenditure for sending the message of advertisement to the public. It is clear that advertising is a mass-selling technique. It is a commercial device through the use of which business organizations make people buy their products. It also acts as an informative and educative force that aids the consumer to form judgment on what to buy. The message of the advertiser reaches not just a small group of people, but thousands of people over a network of media.

Objects and Purpose of Advertising:

          Communication is the main purpose of advertising. Apart from bringing the advertised product to the notice of the consumers, the advertisement serves a number of other related purposes:

-          It helps salesmen. They get employment.

-          It creates demand for the new product.

-          It removes the doubts in the minds of the buyer about the goods advertised.

-           It creates an image and good will of the firm advertising its products.

-          Customers will get the know-how of the product.

-          It increases the sale of the product reducing the cost of production and distribution.

-          The manufacturer can compete with other manufacturers of the similar product.

-          It is a reminder to the consumer to buy the product again.

In brief, advertising helps the producer, consumer and the salesmen. It is a link between the manufacturer and the consumer.

         There is another aspect of the advertisement, which cannot be ignored. This is the educative aspect. The advertiser places his advertisements in the regional language newspapers because these papers are favoured in the remote areas of the country. This is a kind of encouragement to the regional language publications.

Advertising and social responsibilities:
         

         Advertising is one of the most exposed aspects of business. It is one of the most economical means of tapping the wide market. It facilitates the introduction of new products and new uses of old products. It thus serves as a medium for educating the consumers. Advertising aids in the stabilization of production by striving to get the consumer buy certain goods throughout the year rather than seasonally. Thus, it does not serve manufacturers alone but the consumers and society as well. But there is a feeling in the mind of some people against advertising. They criticize it from the point of view of some social concepts. The general social criticism which is leveled against advertising is as follows:

-          Advertising makes false statements which confuse and mislead consumers.

-          Advertising forces consumers to buy goods and services they really do not need or they cannot afford.

-          Advertising promotes the use of products which are inherently harmful.

-          Advertising, as it is exposed to the customers, lacks aesthetic attributes.

-          Advertising is sometimes forced on the customers.

         This criticism of advertising proves it to be anti-social and lacking in good taste. It has been said that without social responsibility advertising may become a great evil and social nuisance. These allegations are apparent and there is a tendency on the part of the critics of advertising to base their allegations against the advertisers for their want of social responsibility.

After examining and resolving social criticisms against advertising, we can discuss the social responsibilities of advertising. Advertising owes certain obligations to the society:

-          The first obligation of advertising is to communicate with the people. It must educate the public.

-          It must spread aesthetic and moral values in the society according to social traditions.

-          The advertising system must contribute to a higher standard of living. It must motivate people to work hard in order to acquire more purchasing power and satisfaction.

-          It must contribute to effective marketing and selling systems of the national economy as a whole. Advertising must be instrumental in promoting a dynamic and expanding economy.

-          The chief task of advertising from a social standpoint is to encourage the development of new products, gearing high consumption and toning up production.

Thus we can conclude our discussion of social responsibilities of advertising by saying that basically there is no conflict between social values and advertising. The conflict arises due to a misunderstanding of the casual relationship between advertising, social values and social good. Our social aim is “maximum welfare for maximum people’ or ‘greatest good to the greatest numbers’. Advertising helps us in attaining this social goal as it prepares us to play our role as well-informed consumer. Thus, advertising is merely a means to an end, and the end is a consumption-oriented people. So, advertising helps us in achieving social goal and social welfare.

EDITING

         Editing is an intellectual pursuit that requires meticulous and careful analysis of content, judgment of story value in relation to other news and weighing of the significance of all news that gets into the paper. Hence editing demands judgment, imagination, dedication and some creativity – all qualities derived from experience rather than from principles and formulas.

Purpose of Editing:

-          To adjust story length to available space

-          To ensure uniformity of style

-          To detect and correct errors of fact and interpretation

-          To simplify language

-          To make the news item meaningful

-          To restructure the news item and make it readable

-          To ensure objectivity and fairplay

-          To give appropriate tone

-          To ensure decency and good taste

PROOF READING

         The main task of a proof-reader is to check whether the composed matter agrees with the edited copy. The reporter writes in a hurry. As he/she is often under pressure, he/she is likely to commit mistakes. That is why the copy is edited. At times even the sub-editor may not notice the mistakes. It is here that an alert proof reader comes to the rescue of the editor. When the proof-reader discovers the mistake in the edited copy and the proof he has to inform the sub-editor concerned and after consulting him he has to carry out the corrections.

          There are two methods of proof-reading – the formal method and the tracking method. In the ‘formal method’, a single proof-reader corrects the proof and he checks the proof by looking into the edited copy. He makes two marks for every correction, one at the point where the mistake is found, the other in the margin, to show what change is to be made.

          In the ‘tracking method’ corrections are tracked onto the margin. The second method is followed in newspapers. Generally corrections in the left half of the proof are made on the left margin. Corrections in the right half are made on the right margin. Usually the proof-readers do the corrections in pairs. One proof-reader reads aloud the proof and makes corrections while the other holds the edited copy and follows the reading. Standard symbols and terms are used in indicating the corrections. The indication should be clear and unmistakable.

          The proof-reader must be a language adept: he has to be libel-conscious. In fact an alert proof-reader with these qualities will be an asset to a newspaper. (Refer Appendix : Proof Reading Symbols)

PHOTOJOURNALISM

         

         Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that creates images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography by complying with a rigid ethical framework which demands that the work is both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media.

• Timeliness — the images have meaning in the context of a recently published record of events.

• Objectivity — the situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the events they depict in both content and tone.

• Narrative — the images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to the viewer or reader on a cultural level.

CARTOONS

         Newspaper cartoons are primarily editorial cartoons or syndicated comic strips. Competition in both fields is fierce, although there is a niche market at some newspapers for editorial cartoons on local and state issues.

          An editorial cartoon, also known as a political cartoon, is an illustration containing a commentary that usually relates to current events or personalities. They typically combine artistic skill, hyperbole and biting humour in order to question authority and draw attention to corruption and other social ills.

          A comic strip syndicate functions as an agent for cartoonists and comic strip creators, placing the cartoons and strips in as many newspapers as possible on behalf of the artist. In some cases, the work will be owned by the syndicate as opposed to the creator. A syndicate can annually receive thousands of submissions from which only two or three might be selected for representation. The leading strip syndicates include Creators Syndicate, King Features Syndicate, NI Syndication, United Media and the Washington Post Writers Group.

NEWS AGENCY

         News Agency also called press agency, press association, wire service, or news service - organization that gathers, writes, and distributes news from around a nation or the world to newspapers, periodicals, radio and television broadcasters, government agencies, and other users. It does not generally publish news itself but supplies news to its subscribers, who, by sharing costs, obtain services they could not otherwise afford. All the mass media depend upon the agencies for the bulk of the news, even including those few that have extensive news-gathering resources of their own.
         

         Despite the plethora of news services, most news printed and broadcast throughout the world each day comes from only a few major agencies, the three largest of which are the Associated Press in the United States, Reuters in Great Britain, and Agence France-Presse in France and Press Trust of India in India.

PRESS COUNCIL OF INDIA

         The Press Council Of India is a statutory body in India that governs the conduct of the print media. It is one of the most important bodies that sustain democracy, as it has supreme power in regards to the media to ensure that freedom of speech is maintained. However, it is also empowered to hold hearings on receipt of complaints and take suitable action where appropriate. It may either warn or censure the errant journalists on finding them guilty. The press council of India is protected by the constitution and its actions may not be questioned unless it is proved to be in violation of the constitution, which makes it exceedingly powerful a body.

         The Press Council of India was first set up in the year 1966 by the Parliament on the recommendations of the First Press Commission with the object of preserving the freedom of the press and of maintaining and improving the standards of press in India. The present Council functions under the Press Council Act 1978. It is a statutory, quasi judicial body which acts as a watchdog of the press. It adjudicates the complaints against and by the press for violation of ethics and for violation of the freedom of the press respectively.

         The Press Council is headed by a Chairman, who has, by convention, been a retired judge of the Supreme Court of India. The Council consists of 28 other members of whom 20 represent the press and are nominated by the press organisations/news agencies recognized and notified by the Council as all India bodies of categories such as editors, working journalists and owners and managers of newspaper; 5 members are nominated from the two houses of Parliament and 3 represent cultural, literary and legal fields as nominees of the Sahitya Academy, University Grants Commission and the Bar Council of India. The members serve on the Council for a term of three years.     The Council is funded by revenue collected by it as fees levied on the registered newspapers in the country on the basis of their circulation. No fee is levied on newspapers with a circulation of less than 5000 copies. The deficit is made good by grants by the Central Government, through the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.