Introduction and History of English literature

 

Introduction and History of English literature

Literature is the reflection of life. It mirrors the society in which it is generated. The word literature comes from the Latin word ‘litaritura’ meaning “writing organized with letters”. We classify literature according to language, origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter.

Initially, literature was a form of entertainment for the people. Over time, it attained the purpose of reform as well. The writers stated highlighting the social issues in their writing. Thus, it became a medium to draw the audience’s attention to certain matters and urge them to think about the reform. From ancient civilizations to the modern era, indeed, all the works of literature have given us insight into the issues and trends prevailing at that time. Literature also provides escape from the ‘grim realities’ of life. While many people read to escape the boredom of their life. Moreover, the higher type of literature helps the reader to escape from trivial reality into significant reality.

English literature, however, emerged with the beginning of the history of English people. It refers to all the literary works (novels, short stories, poems, fiction, nonfiction, and plays) composed in English. The earliest works of English literature mirror the life lived by the people of that region at that specific period. For instance, all the changes undergone by English society from the earliest to the modern time have left their imprints on English literature.

Being the literature of a nation characterized by the spirit of determination, adventure, and diligence, English literature is rich in vitality, diversity, and essence.

A Brief History of English Literature

The introduction and history of English literature go side by side. You can’t get the complete introduction of English literature without going deep down in its history.

The history of English literature initiated with the history of the English race and kept on developing with the social development of the nation. When we analyze the history of English literature, we discover that it consists of eight (8) major periods and several ages. Each period or age of English literature is named after the central literary figure, or the important rulers of England, or certain literary movements. Moreover each period or phase of English literature has its distinct characteristics.

What are the ‘Eight (8) Major Periods’ in the history of English Literature?

The major eight (8) periods in the history of English literature are:

The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450–1066)

The Anglo-Norman or Middle English period (1066–1500)

The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)

The Neoclassical Period (1660–1798)

The Romantic Period (1798–1837)

The Victorian Period (1837–1901)

The Modern Period (1901-1945)

The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)

 

 

Literary Periods	Major literary Trends, Movements and Highlights
Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period  (450–1066)	Heroic Tradition: poetry focused on hero’s bravery Elegiac Tradition: writers mourned the passing of earlier, better times.
Anglo-Norman or Middle English Period (1066–1500)	Popular forms of Writing: Chronicles, Poetry, Drama, Religious and Didactic writing.
Renaissance Period or Age of Shakespeare (1500–1660)	Trends: Revival of learning, Rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art, focus on ‘Humanism’ and ‘Puritanism’. Major Forms of literature: poetry and drama.
Neoclassical Period or the Enlightenment Age (1660–1798)	Trends: Revival of classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome, focus on order, accuracy, and structure.  Poetic Trends: Use of allusions, heroic couplet and strict meter and rhyme.  Chief Contribution: The Modern Novel.
Romantic Period (1798–1837)	Trends: The Romantic Movement in Poetry, Gothicism in literature.  Chief Contribution: Romantic Poetry and The Gothic Novel.
Victorian Period (1837–1901)	Literary Trends & Movements: Symbolism, Utilitarianism, Oxford Movement, Romantic Protestantism. Age of Prose & Novel.  Main Focus: individually, morality note, conflict between religion and science, human beings than nature.
Contemporary Period (1945-Today)	Literary Trends: structuralism, deconstruction, poststructuralism, postmodernism, postcolonialism, and magic realism.  Main Focus: horrors of war, genocide, life experiences, real-life themes, alienation, transformation, consumption & relativity of truth.

 

1. The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450-1066 AD)

Angles and Saxons were the ancestors of the English race. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the early 5th Century, three Germanic tribes—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—saw an opportunity to fill in the power gap and started migrating to Britain. The Anglo-Saxons were fearless, adventurous, and brave people. By 670 A.D. they had occupied the major part of the country, and the land of Anglos or Angloland—present day England—became their permanent abode.

The language brought by these Anglo-Saxon settlers together with some Latin and Celtic words became Old English. Anglo-Saxon literature was the earliest phase of English literature. This period consists of literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England from the 5th Century AD to the Norman Conquest of 1066.

The Old English spoken by Anglo-Saxon people looks incomprehensible to today’s English-speakers. However, there are a good number of words that have survived in modern day English such as “day” , “year”, “kiss” , “love” , “arm” etc.

1.1 Anglo-Saxon Poetry

The Anglo-Saxons were fond of singing about battles, gods and their ancestral heroes. It is, however, these songs of religion, wars, and agriculture that marked the beginning of English poetry in ancient England. 

The Anglo-Saxon poetry was mostly sung instead of written. That’s why there are very few remnants left of it. Among them, the most famous one is Beowulf. It is the first English epic poem. Beowulf narrates a tale of the adventures of Beowulf, a brave hero. This poem, in fact, abounds in all sorts of references and allusions to great events and the fortunes of kings and nations.

Key Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon Poetry: Heroic poetry elements, Christian ideals, Synecdoche, Metonymy. and Irony.

After embracing Christianity, the Anglo-Saxon poets began to write religious poetry. Therefore, the major portion of Anglo-Saxon poetry encompasses religion. The most famous religious poets of the Anglo-Saxon period were Caedmon and Cynewulf. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn in which praises in honor of God. Cynewulf’s famous religious poems were Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, Crist, and Elene. Among them, ‘Crist’ is the most popular one telling the event that occurred in the life of Jesus Christ.

Who was the first English writer? Cædmon was the first English writer. He wrote his poetry in the Old English language. His only surviving work is ‘Cædmon’s Hymn.’

1.2. The Anglo-Saxon Prose

The Anglo-Saxons replaced Latin prose with English which observed all the rules of ordinary speech in its construction. The famous Anglo-Saxon king, Alfred the Great, translated most of the famous Latin Chronicles in English. However, the second famous prose writer of the Anglo-Saxon period was, no doubt, Aelfric. He was actually a priest. Among his famous writings were

Lives of the Saints, Homilies, and Grammar. Moreover, compared to other contemporary prose writers of the period, Aelfric’s prose was easy and alliterative.

What was the first work in English literature? Beowulf was the earliest most popular epic poem of English literature.

1.3. The Decline of Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxon period flourished until the Norman Conquest of 1066. After the defeat of Harold, the last of Saxon kings, by William who was the Conqueror of Normandy, France, the Anglo-Saxon period finally came to an end. In history, their ruling period extends roughly from 450 A.D. to 1066 A.D. 

There is no doubt that the Anglo-Saxons lived a life rich in courage, splendor, savagery, and sentiment. Their literature, thus, remarkably contains all these traits. It reflects all the main principles of their life, for instance, the love of personal freedom, religion, appreciation for womanhood, responsiveness to nature, and the struggle for glory.

2. The Anglo-Norman or Middle English Period (1066-1500 AD)

With the Norman conquest began a new era in the history of England literature. The Normans brought with them their rich French culture and language. The literature of this period comes under the category of Norman-French Literature or Anglo-French Literature. Since the Anglo-Norman period belonged to the Middle Ages or Medieval times in Britain History, we also call it the Middle English period in the history of English literature.

The Norman Conquest brought a radical change in English culture, law, language, and character. English became the language spoken only by the poor and powerless. While Norman-French became the language of the rich. It also became the symbol of social status and prestige. The Anglo-Normans wrote mainly to cater to the taste of Norman rulers. Moreover, only the monarchs and courtiers of that time had a right to encourage the literary writings.

We can’t deny the fact that the Norman Contest stimulated the awakening of the people, who extremely needed an outside stimulus at that time. Soon the people got influenced by a new vision and ultimately united in a common hope. As a result, the Anglo-Saxons’ hostility towards the Normans also turned into national unity. 

The Normans brought with them their soldiers, artisans, traders, chroniclers, minstrels, and scholars. With their help, they wanted to revive knowledge, record memorable events, celebrate victories, and sing of love and adventure. In addition, the most popular forms of writing for the Anglo-Normans were chronicles, religious and didactic writing, poetry, romances and drama.  

 2.1. The Romances of Anglo-Norman Period

In contrast to the courage, seriousness, and savagery of the Anglo-Saxon literature, the Normans introduced romantic tales of love and adventure in literature. This made the Anglo-Norman period to be chivalric rather than a heroic one. Romance became the most popular form of literature during the Anglo-Norman or Middle English period. These romances were famous for their stories rather than poetry. Most of them, in fact, had their origin in Latin and French sources. They told the stories of King Arthur, The War of Troy, the mythical doings of Charlemagne, and Alexander the Great.

2.2. Chronicles in the Anglo-Norman Period 

In the Anglo-Norman period of English literature, chronicles became a well-established form of writing. These chronicles basically recorded the history of kings. Though written in the Anglo-Norman language, these chronicles, however, became the major source of historical knowledge for medieval people. Additionally, they contained historical events, and legendary material without any interpretation or comment by the author.

2.3. The Mystery and Miracle Plays

Another remarkable achievement of the Middle English Period, however, was religious or didactic writings. Under this category came the Mystery and Miracle plays. The Mystery plays were based on subjects taken from the Bible while the Miracle plays depicted the lives of saints. Since only the clergymen of the church had the authority to write and perform these plays, they chose Latin as the medium of writing and performing these plays.

2.4. The Morality Plays

In the Middle English period, Morality plays also became very popular. Allegory was, in fact, the main streak of these plays. In the Morality plays characters were personified abstractions presenting the conflict in the human soul. The sole purpose of these plays was to instruct the people through the Bible, lives of saints, and the conflict between good and evil. Hence, these plays also came under the category of religious and didactic writing of that period.

2.5. The Anglo-Norman Poets

Some of the famous poets of the Middle English period and their notable works are briefly discussed below:

2.5.1. Philippe de Thaun 

Philipe de Thaun was one of the earliest Anglo-Norman poets of the period. He was mainly famous for his two significant poems. The first one was ‘Livre des Creatures’’. It was a treatise on astronomy written around 1119. His second famous work was the allegorical poem ‘Bestiaire’ written around 1121 in the Anglo-Norman dialect.

2.5.2. Reginald of Canterbury 

Another famous Anglo-Norman poet is Reginald of Canterbury. He was a monk as well. His most famous poem is ‘The Legend of St Malchus’ which was written around 1112.

2.5.3. Hilarius 

Hilarius was another Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century. He was an Englishman but wrote his poems in Latin. In his poems, he has mainly addressed to English persons.

2.5.4. Benoit de Sainte Maur 

Benoit de Sainte-Maure was a famous French poet in the 12th century. His most famous work was ‘Roman de Troie’ (The Romance of Troy).

2.5.5. William Langland

One of the notable poets of the Middle Ages, William Langland emerged in the 14th century. He held a significant place in the history of English literature and wrote many important poems. His most famous poem is ‘A Vision of Piers the Plowman’. As a satire on the corrupt religious practices, Langland’s poem clearly discusses the ethical problems of that time. Most of his poems are satirical in nature and bring about moral, political and social questions.

2.5.6. John Gower

John Gower also occupied a significant place in the development of English poetry of the Medieval period. He wrote around the 14th or 15th century bringing about the poems that represented the English culmination of courtly medieval poetry. His poems, indeed, proved that English can compete with the other languages that had distinguished themselves in poetry. Gower was mainly a narrative poet and a moralist. His most famous poem is Confession Amantis, written in the form of conversation between the divine interpreter and the poet. Like Chaucer, John Gower also played a significant role in developing English language as a thoroughly equipped medium of literature. 

Who is the father of English literature? Geoffrey Chaucer is known as the ‘Father of English literature’.

2.6. The Age of Chaucer

Towards the end of the Middle English period came ‘The Age of Chaucer’, covering the period from 1343 to 1450. It is the most significant time period in the literary history of English literature. Chaucer made a fresh and distinct beginning in English literature and became the ‘Father of English literature’ as well as the ‘Father of English poetry’. Chaucer’s poetry has been widely read from his own day to the present time. He was not merely a bookman or the visionary, rather, he was a man of the world and its affairs.

Chaucer’s most significant work is Canterbury Tales. It is a collection of stories related by the pilgrims of different sections of society who are on their way to Thomas Becket’s shrine at Canterbury. A landmark in the history of English poetry, Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales enriched the English language and meter to an extent that could be conveniently used for any purpose. Furthermore, his introduction of a variety of characters into a single action and their engagement in animated dialogues fulfilled every requirement of the dramatists who were short of bringing their plays on the stage. Chaucer’s works also showed to the novelists the way to portray their characters.

2.6.1. Decline in English Poetry

Chaucer’s significance in the development of English literature is remarkable as he shifted poetry from the region of Theology and Metaphysics to the old classical principle of the direct imitation of nature. After Chaucer there came a decline in English poetry for about 100 years. The period from 1400 to the Renaissance was bereft of quality literature. The poets of that time period produced little work and merely imitated Chaucer and his contemporaries. 

Although the beginning of the Anglo-Norman Period is obvious, historians differ on when this period ended. Some historians say that it ended in 1144 or 1066, while for others it lasted up to 1450 or 1500. The Norman Conquest of England had, in fact, a profound effect in introducing various changes in the history of English literature. ‘The Age of Chaucer was followed by The Renaissance Period also known as the Elizabethan Period or the Age of Shakespeare in the history of English literature.

3. The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)

Visualization of the Renaissance Period house interior – Image credits: homeadvisor

The Renaissance Period in the history of English literature is also known as the Elizabethan Period or the Age of Shakespeare. It is, in fact, the ‘golden age’ in the history of English literature. After the Middle Ages in Europe came the Renaissance, meaning revival or rebirth. As a result, the darkness of the middle ages was replaced by the enlightenment of the human mind with the ‘Revival of Learning’, which the Renaissance prompted. 

The major characteristic of the Renaissance was its focus on Humanism i.e. man’s concern with himself as an object of observation. The Renaissance actually started Italy by Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch. However, it became popular in Europe during the Elizabethan Period. Beside focusing on the ‘study of mankind’, Renaissance had numerous subordinate trends which were actually the significant aspects of Humanism. These include:

• The rediscovery of classical antiquity, particularly of ancient Greece.
• The rediscovery of the external universe, and its importance for man.
• The problems of human personality.
• The enhanced sensitivity to formal beauty, and the cultivation of the aesthetic sense. 
• The belief that men are responsible for their own actions. 

Instead of looking up to some higher authority for guidance, as was done in The Middle Ages, the writers of the Renaissance Period found guidance from within. 

3.1. Elizabethan Drama

During the Renaissance Period the most important achievement in English literature was in the field of drama. The dramatists of this golden period include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson, Lyly, George Peele, Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene and others. All these writers produced prolific works. However, the greatest among all Elizabethan dramatists was Shakespeare in whose hands the Elizabethan drama reached its climax. He took English drama to the level which could not be surpassed till today. 

Who is the Father of English Drama? William Shakespeare is called the ‘Father of English Drama.’

The main characteristics of the Elizabethan drama include–revenge themes, internal conflicts, good versus evil, melodramatic scenes, hero-villain protagonists, tragic-comedy, presence of supernatural beings such as ghosts and witches and the use of blank verse. Here are some famous dramatists of the Elizabethan Period:

3.1.1. Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)

There was a famous group of dramatists in the Elizabethan Period known as ‘University Wits’. It was actually a professional set of literary men. Of all the members of this group Marlowe was the greatest, while other dramatists such as Lyly, Peele, Greene, Lodge, and Nash were minor artists.

Nevertheless, Marlowe’s contributions to the Elizabethan drama were remarkable. Although his plays were different from Shakespeare’s in content and style, yet he raised the subject-matter of drama to a higher level. It was Marlowe who gave beauty, dignity, and poetic glow to the drama. There is no doubt that he did the groundwork on which Shakespeare built the grand edifice. Therefore, Marlowe has been rightly called “the Father of English Dramatic Poetry.”

Christopher Marlowe is also known as the ‘Child of Renaissance’

Marlowe’s first play Tamburlaine appeared in 1587 and took the public on a storm due to its impetuous force, sensitivity to beauty, and splendid command of blank verse. His other famous work, however, include The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus which tells the story of a scholar who sells his soul to the devil for unlimited power and worldly enjoyment. The third famous tragic play of Marlowe is The Jew of Malta. Though it has a glorious opening, it is not as fine as Doctor Faustus. Marlowe’s last play is Edward II which is best from technical point of view but lacks the rhythmic beauty as well as grandeur of his earlier plays.

3.1.2. William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

It was Shakespeare, the greatest of all Elizabethan dramatists, who took English drama to the highest peak of fame. He was, indeed, a gifted man. His brilliant imagination, keen insight, and a creative mind gave new life to the old familiar stories and made them glow with tenderest feelings and deepest thoughts. His style and versification were extremely remarkable. He was not only the greatest dramatist of his time, but also a famous poet as well. His sonnets, replete with passion and aesthetic sense, also possess a significant place in the history of English literature. Although Shakespeare belonged to the Elizabethan Age, due to his universality he belongs to all times. 

Shakespeare’s works include non-dramatic poetry consisting of two narrative poems, Venice and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, 154 sonnets, and 37 plays. His work as a dramatist extends over some 24 years (1588-1612), and is divided into four periods. Let’s briefly overview this period:

West Side Story (1961): One of the most famous musical adaptation of Romeo and Juliet, ever.

1577-1593: First Period

This period includes Shakespeare’s early experimental work. The famous works of this period are: the revision of old plays as the three parts of Henry VI and Titus Andronicus; his first comedies—The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Love’s Labor’s Lost, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, and The Comedy of Errors ; his first chronicle play—Richard III; and his most famous youthful tragedy—Romeo and Juliet.

1594-1600: Second Period

This period reveals Shakespeare’s development as a great thinker and artist. The works of this period includes Shakespeare’s great comedies and chronicle plays such as: The Merchant of Venice, Richard II, Henry IV, King John, Henry V, Part I and II, Much Ado About Nothing, The Training of the Shrew, As You Like It, The Merry Wives of Windsor, and Twelfth Night. 

1601-1608: Third Period

This period includes Shakespeare’s greatest tragedies and somber comedies. His main concern there is to reveal the darker side of human personality and its destructive passions. The major works of this period are: Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello, Julius Caesar, King Lear, All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Coriolanus, Anthony and Cleopatra, Troilus and Cressida, and Timon of Athens.

1608-1612: Fourth Period

This period includes Shakespeare’s later dramatic romances and comedies. Here we see a decline in his power of thought and expression. Still his plays are tender and gracious. The famous works of this period are: The Winter’s Tale, The Tempest, and Cymbeline. He wrote all these plays in collaboration with other dramatists. 

3.1.3. Ben Johnson (1573-1637)

Ben Johnson was Shakespeare’s contemporary as well as a prominent dramatist of his times. But he was just the opposite of Shakespeare. A moralist, reformer, and a classist, Johnson in his works presented a true picture of contemporary society. He wrote his plays in a realistic manner and introduced his theory of ‘humour’. His famous comedies are: The Alchemist, Bartholomew, Fair, Volpone, Every Man in His Humour, Every Man Out of His Humour, and The Silent Woman.

3.1.4. Other Major Figures

There were many other playwrights who were part of the Golden Age of English Drama. For instance, Lyly wrote Euphues, Sapho and Phao, Midas, Endymion and Compaspe. Thomas Kyd wrote The Spanish Tragedy. Robert Greene wrote Orlando Furioso. Compared to the works of the greatest dramatists of this period, their works are of little importance.

William Tyndale is known as ‘The Father of English Prose’

3.1.5. The Puritan Age (1600-1660)

In the 17th century came the decline of the Renaissance spirit. The writers of that time either imitated the Elizabethan masters or paved new paths. The 17th century’s literature is divided into two periods—The Puritan Age or the Age of Milton (1600-1660) and the Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700). Up to 1660, Puritanism dominated the 17th Century. John Milton was the greatest representative of the Puritan spirit. The Puritan movement in literature is also called the second Renaissance because of the revival of man’s moral nature. It stood for people’s liberty from the shackles of the despotic ruler and introduced morality and high ideals in politics. 

John Milton(1608-1674) was the most significant poet of the Puritan Age. He was a great scholar of classical as well as Hebrew literature. A child of the Renaissance, Milton was also a great humanist. As an artist we may call him the last Elizabethan. Milton’s greatest poetical works are Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes. Besides Milton, the poetry of The School of Spencer, The Metaphysical Poets, and The Cavalier Poets also earned great fame. But no one of them was as noblest and indomitable representative of the Puritan spirit as John Milton.

Moreover, this period was rich in prose as well. Among the great prose writers of the Puritan Age include Francis Bacon, Milton, Robert Burton, Jeremy Tayler, Sir Thomas Brown and Clarendon. During this period we find English prose developing into a magniloquent and rich instrument capable of expressing all types of ideas, such as scientific, philosophical, poetic, religious and personal.

4. The Neoclassical Period (1660-1798)

The period between 1660 and 1798 is roughly marked as the Neoclassical Period in the history of English literature. Moreover, this time period is divided into two parts: the Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700), and the Classical Age or the Augustan Age (18 Century). The Classical Age is further divided into two distinct periods–the Age of Pope (1700-1744) and the Age of Johnson (1744-1784). 

4.1. The Restoration Period (1660-1700)

The period from 1660 to 1700 is called the Restoration Period because monarchy was restored in England, and Charles II came back to England from his exile in France and became the King. It is also known as the Age of Dryden because Dryden was the most significant literary figure of the age. The Puritans who were previously controlling the country were finally defeated. As a result, a reaction was launched against whatever they held sacred. All restraints and discipline were casted away, and a tide of indecency and frivolity swept the country. Since Charles II and his followers had enjoyed a gay life during their exile in France, they introduced same foppery and looseness in England as well. 

As a result, the people were deprived of the old Elizabethan spirit with its patriotism, creative vigor and the love of adventure and romance. Moreover, the Puritan spirit with its moral discipline and love of liberty also became a thing of the past. The writers of this period made two important contributions to English literature. The first was in the form of realism and the second was a tendency to preciseness. 

4.1.1 The Restoration Poetry

The Restoration Poetry was mostly realistic and satirical. It was mostly written in the heroic couplet, of which Dryden was the greatest master. He was the most important figure of the Restoration Period and made great achievements in the fields of poetry, drama and prose.  In fact, he was the only poet of his age worth mentioning. He wrote in a lucid and forceful style that laid the foundation of the classical school of poetry in England.

Furthermore, Dryden’s poetry is divided into three groups: Doctrinal Poems, Political Satires, and The Fables. His famous political satires include Absalom and Achitophel and The Medal. Dryden’s famous doctrinal poems are Religio Laici and The Hind and the Panther. His fables, written in narrative form, entitle him to rank among the best story-tellers in verse in England. Palamon and Arcite can be examined in this regard. Dryden’s poetry displays all the characteristics of the Restoration Period and is, therefore, thoroughly representative of that age.

4.1.1 The Restoration Drama and Prose

Restoration drama showed entirely new trends due to the long break with the past. It was extremely influenced by the new age that was deficient in poetic feeling, imagination, and emotional approach to life. Rather, it focused on prose as the medium of expression, and had a realistic, intellectual and critical approach to human life and its problems. 

The Comedy of Manners was the most famous form of drama during the Restoration Period. It portrayed the sophistical life of society’s dominant class—its insolence, gaiety, intrigue and foppery. The most popular Restoration dramatist was William Congreve. He wrote the best comedies, for instance, Love for Love and The Way of the World. The chief writer of heroic tragedy was Dryden. His famous tragic plays include Tyrannic Love, All for Love, and The Conquest of Granada.

In the field of prose, the Restoration Period held its head higher than poetry and drama. A unique prose style evolved for the first time. This style could be used for plain narrative, practical business, and argumentative exposition of intricate topics. Dryden was the dominant leader and practitioner of that new prose style. Other famous prose writers of the period were John Bunyan, John Tillotson, William Temple, Thomas Sprat, and Viscount Halifax. Besides Dryden, John Bunyan was the greatest prose writer of the age. His most famous work is The Pilgrim’s Progress.

4.2. The Classical or Augustan Age (18th Century)

The 18th century in English literature is called the Classical Age or the Augustan Age. We also call it the Age of Reason or the Age of Good Sense. The writers of the age produced works of great significance and merit. The major characteristics of the Restoration period—precision and realism—were carried to further perfection. It was during the 18th century that for the first time in the history of English literature prose occupied the front position. 

The most important feature of the 18th Century was the origin and development of the novel. This new literary form, which at present holds a prominent place, was fed and nourished by the great masters such as Defoe, Richardson, Smollet, Fielding, and others. All these writers laid the secure foundation of this new form.

Who is the Mother of English Literature? Francis Burney is known as the ‘Mother of English Literature.’

4.2.1 The Age of Pope (1700-1744)

The earlier part of the 18th Century is called the Age of Pope, since Alexander Pope was the dominating figure in that period. The poetry of the Age of Pope is not of a high order. Still, it has some distinct merits such as the creation of a technically beautiful verse, the clarity of its expression and the finished art of satire.

The famous poets of this age include Alexander Pope (the greatest of all poets of this age), Matthew Prior, John Gay, Edward Young and others. However, the greatest prose writers of this age were Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. The prose of this age exhibits the classical qualities—for instance, vigor, clarity, and direct statement. 

4.2.2 The Age of Johnson (1744-1784)

The later half of the Augustan Age was dominated by Dr. Samuel Johnson and is, therefore, called the Age of Johnson. During this age, cracks had begun to appear in the edifice of classicism and there were clear signs of revolt in favor of the Romantic spirit. It was especially noticeable in the field of poetry. The poets who showed romantic leanings in their poetry are the precursors of the Romantic Revival. These poets include James Thomson, William Blake, Thomas Gray, William Cowper, William Collins, and George Crabbe. Due to its Romantic inclinations, we also call the Age of Johnson as the Age of Transition in English Literature.

The dominating prose writers of this age were Samuel Johnson, Edmund Burke, and Edward Gibbon. They were, indeed, the pillars of the Age of Johnson and represented in themselves the highest achievements of English prose. After the Age of Johnson came the Romantic Period. The Neoclassical period officially ended in 1798 when William Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge published the ‘Lyrical Ballads’.

5. The Romantic Period (1798-1837)Pride & Prejudice (2005) : Pride and Prejudice is a romantic novel by Jane Austen, first published in 1813

The most flourished period in the history of English literature is the Romantic Period. It was a revolt against the Classical school of the 18th Century. Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Shelley, Keats, and Byron  belonged to this period. The Romantic Age was basically the age of poetry. With the publication of Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth and Coleridge introduced a new form of poetry in opposition to the poetry of the Classical school.

The Romantic poets focused on the simplicity of language and chose the language of the common people. They looked back to the Elizabethan masters—Shakespeare, Spenser and others—in order to take inspiration from them. Their poems usually dealt with the events of everyday life. The Romantic poets proved that if the trivial aspects of nature and the common things of life are treated in the right way, they could be as interesting and significant as the grand aspects of nature and life. 

The prose writers of the Romantic period also rejected the Augustan style of writing. They reverted to the ponderous, poetical and flowery prose of the Renaissance. Since the Romantic Age was characterized by the excess of emotions, it produced a new type of novel—the Gothic Novel—which soon became popular among the multitude of readers with its Gothic elements such as supernatural, gloomy settings and bizarre situations. 

 

Romanticism: Definition, History, Characteristics & Poetry

NOVEMBER 17, 2021

5.1 Difference Between Classicism and Romanticism

Romanticism was explicitly opposed to Classicism. While the Classical Age was the age of prose, the Romantic Age was the age of poetry. During the Romantic Period, poetry became the proper medium of the expression of thoughts, emotions, and imaginative process of the artist. Classicism laid stress upon the impersonal aspects of life, whereas Romantic literature openly shifted the center of art to the personal aspects of individuals. 

Moreover, the heroic couplet was the only form of writing poetry in the Classical Age. While in the Romantic Period, the poets focused on simple and natural diction. The liberty of the poet from the shackles of the literary rules was the watchword of the Romantic movement. Thus, Romantic literature is a genuinely creative literature focusing on the highest creative faculty of man.

6. The Victorian Period (1837–1901)

Art Nouveau, an ornamental style of art that evolved in late Victorian Era – Image credits: HomeAdvisor

Beginning in the second quarter of the 19th Century, the Victorian Period is so long as well as complicated. Moreover, there are numerous great writers who flourished during that period. That’s why, for the sake of convenience, the Victorian Period is divided into two further periods—Early Victorian Period (1837-1870) and Later Victorian Period (1870-1901). 

6.1. Early Victorian Period

The Earlier Victorian Period was, in fact, dominated by middle class supremacy, the age of ‘laissez-fair’ or free trade, and of unrestricted competition. The great writers of this period were Robert Browning, Alfred Tennyson, Charles Dickens, Matthew Arnold, Carlyle, Thackeray and Ruskin. All these poets, novelists, and prose writers, in spite of their individual differences, exhibited the same approach to contemporary issues. Due to this, they form a certain homogenous group possessing the same social, literary, and moral values.

6.2. Later Victorian Period

The Later Victorian Period began after 1870. The most prominent writers of that period were Christiana Rossetti, Charles Swinburne, George Eliot, William Morris, Thomas Hardy, Oscar Wilde, Pater and others. In poetry, Morris, Swinburne and Rossetti were the protagonists of a new literary movement—the

Pre-Raphaelite Movement. Later on, this movement was followed by the Aesthetic Movement. Its protagonists were Oscar Wilde, Earnest Dowson, Arthur Symons and Lionel Pigot Johnson. In the field of novels, however, George Eliot laid the foundation of the ‘Modern Psychological Novel’, followed by Thomas Hardy and Meredith. 

The Victorian Period exhibits a unique and complex amalgamation of two opposites—Romanticism and Classicism. Basically, its inclination towards Classicism was due its rational approach to the problems of life, deeply moral attitude, and a search for stability and balance. On the other hand, it exhibited close proximity to the Romantic spirit which had not completely exhausted itself but suddenly ended due to the following reasons:

• the premature deaths of Keats, Byron, and Shelley. 
• the disillusionment resulted from industrialization and material prosperity.
• the social and economic unrest.

Courtesy: By The Book

7. The Modern Period (1901-1945)

From the beginning of the 20th Century started the Modern Period in English literature. The most significant feature of Modern literature was that it opposed the general attitude of Victorian writers and people to life and its problems. During the first decade of the 20th Century, the young people regarded the Victorian age as hypocritical, and the Victorian ideals as superficial, mean and stupid. This rebellion hugely affected modern literature which was directed by moral values, spiritual ideals as well as mental attitudes that were dramatically opposed to those of the Victorians. 

Moreover, the Modernists no longer believed in the sanctity of home life as Victorians did. They also reacted against the Victorians’ attitude of self complacency and self perfection. Since the modern writers could no longer write in the old manner, they devised their own. If they wrote about the contempt of money, natural beauty, divine love, and the sentiments of home and life , they were considered running the risk of striking a false note. Even if they treated the same themes, they had to do it tactfully to evoke unique thoughts and emotions. The modern writers, therefore, had to cultivate a fresh point of view employing fresh techniques. 

The main cause of this attitude of interrogations and disintegration of old values was the impact of scientific thought on the people. Many writers of the 20th Century began to study and contemplate seriously over the writings of Karl Marx, Engles, Ruskin, Morris etc. and  discuss practical suggestions for the reconstruction of society. The 20th Century literature is full of experimentation and adventures peculiar to the modern age—an age of transition and discovery.

7.1. Modern Poetry

Modern poetry followed an entirely different tradition from the Romantic and Victorian tradition of poetry. The modern poets believed that the poet’s business was to be uniquely himself, and to project his personality through the medium of his art. Poetry to them was a method of discovering one’s self, and then a means of projecting this discovery.

T. S. Eliot is the chief representative of modern poetry. A greatest poet as well as a critic, he reinforced his political theories by his own poetry, and thus exerted a tremendous influence on modern poetry. His most famous poems include The Waste Land, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, The Dry Salvages, East Coker, and Little Gidding. Other famous modern poets are Robert Bridges, Gerard Manley Hopkins, A. E. Houseman, Wilfred Owen, W. B. Yeats and others.

7.2. Modern Drama

Drama in England suffered a decline for about two centuries after the death of Shakespeare and his contemporaries. It was revived, however, in the last decade of the 19th Century. The two important dramatists who took a significant part in the revival of drama were the Irish men—George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde. Shaw practiced the Comedy of Idea, whereas Wilde practiced the new Comedy of Manners. Shaw, a great thinker, represented the Puritan side of the Anglo-Irish tradition. Wilde, on the other hand, was fond of a luxurious life. He was not a deep thinker as Shaw was and his attitude to life was essentially a playful and entertaining one. 

Besides the comedy of manners and ideas, another type of drama evolved in England under the influence of the Irish Dramatic Movement. Its originators were Lady Gregory  and W. B. Yeats. The two important dramatists of this movement were J. M. Synge and Sean O’ Casey. Other famous modern dramatists include Harold Pinter, John Galsworthy, John Masefield, J. M. Berrie, and Harley Granville-Barker. 

Who is the Father of Modern Drama?  Henrik Ibsen is well-known as the ‘Father of Modern Drama’.

7.3. Modern Novel

The modern novel is realistic as well as psychological. The Modern novelists had introduced into the novel subtle points of view, reserved and refined characters, and intangible delicacies of motive. All these had never been attempted before by any English novelist. The modern novelist in their works employed the ‘stream of consciousness’ technique. This technique not only helped them to reveal the character completely and present development in character. Besides being realistic and psychological, the modern novelists were quite frank with sexual matters. 

The modern novelists who dominated the earlier part of the 20th Century were H. G. Bells, Arnold Bennett, Henry James, Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling, John Galsworthy and E. M. Foster. From the beginning of World War I new experiments were made in the field of literature on account of the new forces which resulted from war and broke the old tradition. The writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Adlous Huxley, D. H. Laurence, and Somerset Maugham made the greatest contribution to this century. 

8. The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)

After World War II, new trends appeared in English literature. Although poetry was the most memorable form to come out of World War I, the novel was the form which told the stories of World War II. This was because mass media, cinema, newspapers, and radio had changed the way of information and entertainment. There were many writers who wrote about war. For instance, Henry Greene’s novels— Nothing (1950), The End of Affair (1951), and A Burnt-out Case (1961) deal with war. These novels explore regions of human unhappiness  in many different areas of the world.

Then came Samuel Beckett, best known for his plays, who described interior feelings of lonely souls in his works. In this regard came his novels Murphy (1938) and How It Is (1961). Similarly, the novels of George Orwell also possess political intention. As a socialist, Orwell believed in equality. His famous works are Animal Farm (1945), and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). 

8.1. The Novel from 1950s and 1960s

Certainly, each decade in the history of English literature introduced different ways of writing. In the 1950s, a new generation of writers appeared, with new subjects and issues. These writers include Colin Wilson, John Wain, Alan Sillitoe, Muriel Spark, Doris Lessing, William Golding and others. The most successful comic novel of the 1950s was Kingsley Amis’s Lucky Jim (1954). It was, in fact, one of the first novels to have a university setting.  

William Golding was one of the great story-tellers of his time. He always explored in his novels the things which form human behavior. His famous novels are Lord of the Flies (1954) and The Inheritors (1955). From the 1970s, the novel took several directions. The four main directions were:

• the focus on foreign and local regional voices.
• the focus on more female voices. 
• the academic or campus novel.
• the coming of the kind of fantasy known as Magic Realism.

Thus, British literature of the contemporary period mainly includes reality-based stories having strong characters and realistic themes. The Settings of contemporary novels are usually the current or modern era. In their novels and poetry, the contemporary writers deal with such themes as war, racism, identity, family, home, and a search for goodness in humanity.

For this article, I consulted the following books: 

• Andrew Sander’s The Short Oxford History of English Literature
• Robert Barnard’s A Short History of English Literature 
• Stephen Coote’s The Penguin Short History of English Literature

 

The Old Man and the Sea - Ernest Hemingway

                                        The Old Man and the Sea - Ernest Hemingway

The Old Man and the Sea: An Introduction

The Old Man and the Sea is a short novel, based on three-day journey of an old man, to catch a big fish. Ernest Hemingway wrote it in 1951, published in 1952. The Old Man and the Sea is his last chief fictional work. It is a heroic novel, and it deals with the concepts of aging, self-identification, and commitment. The novel was an immediate success and is still famous worldwide. It has been adapted into film three times, one of which was animated. The Old Man and the Sea won Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1953 and Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.

Ernest Hemingway (July, 1899 – July, 1961)

Ernest Hemingway, the author of this novel, was an American. He was a sportsman, journalist, and writer of fiction and nonfiction. His iceberg theory, writing in an economical and minimalistic style, influenced the fictional writing of 20th century. He was born in 1899, and was second of the six siblings. Hemingway had adventurous and happening life. He was an ambulance driver in World War I and was present as a journalist in World War II. He married four times and had four children. He shot himself in 1961, ending his life.

Summary of  “The Old Man and the Sea”

The story revolves around the central character, Santiago. He has gone straight 84 days, without catching a single fish. Due to this, the people have started seeing him as ‘salao’, the worst of unluckiness. He is considered so unlucky that the young boy, Manolin, who was his apprentice, is stopped by his parents to go for fishing with Santiago anymore. However, Manolin has admiration for Santiago and sees him as a mentor. Therefore, Manolin visits Santiago each night at his shack. They talk about American baseball, Manolin prepares food, and they just enjoy each other’s company. One day, Santiago tells Manolin that the following day; he will go far out into the Gulf Stream to fish. He is confident that the unluckiness, that has attached itself to him, is going to wash away with this venture.

On the start of 85th day of unluckiness, the old man does what he decided to do. He goes far off into the Gulf Stream and very optimistically waits for his big catch. At noon, Santiago sees that a big fish, which he identifies as a marlin, has taken his bait. Filled with joy, he tries to pull the marlin, but instead, the marlin pulls the old man with his boat. He tries to tie the cord with the boat but fails. The marlin keeps on pulling the boat all through the day and night, for two days. In all this, trying to hold on to the fish, the old man gets badly injured and exhausted. Every time the marlin pulls hard, his hands end up getting more wounded. However, just like the marlin, he does not give up.

The old man admires the marlin for it staying true to its nature and struggling for freedom. He feels like the marlin is partner in his pain, suffering, and also in his strength. Finally, on the third day of old man’s struggling to keep the marlin, the fish tires and gives in. It starts to circle around his skiff. Santiago, with all that he has in him, pulls the fish and manages to kill it with a harpoon. He ties the fish to the side of the skiff and finally, after days of unimaginable struggle, aims for home. Santiago is happy and proud of himself that he has managed to catch a fish that would have a great price, and feed a lot of people. However, he is also concerned that his eaters will be unworthy of it because of its greatness.

Just within some time, due to scent of marlin’s blood, sharks gather round. They start to tear flesh away from marlin. Santiago manages to drive away a few but loses his harpoon as a result. Then as more sharks keep coming, he makes another harpoon by putting his knife into an oar. He kills several sharks and scares many away. However, still filled with hunger, the sharks keep coming and stealing the flesh off of the marlin. In the end, they leave nothing but the shell of marlin, which too only consisted of mainly its backbone, head, and tail. Santiago feels defeated at the loss of his precious opponent. He feels like his entire struggle, and labour ended in vain and he lost. He tells the sharks too that they have destroyed him and his dreams. He even blames himself for going too far.

Santiago reaches the shore, crushed with the labour of past three days. With very little that was left in him, he carries his stuff and struggles towards his shack. He leaves the skeleton of the martin, which he had very arduously caught, behind. He thinks that it is of no use to him now. Santiago makes it to his shack and just collapses on his bed. He goes into a deep slumber and becomes oblivious to everything. Now on the shore, where his boat is, fishermen gather round. They see the skeleton of the marlin attached to it and measure it. It turns out to be 18 feet (5.5 m) from nose to tail. The fish appears to be the biggest that the village had ever seen. The fishermen tell Manolin to tell the old man how sorry they are over their rude behaviour.

Manolin gets teary when he sees the old man alive, but injured. The old man tells Manolin that he lost again but Manolin assures him that everything was fine. He brings him coffee and newspapers. They chat and agree on going fishing together again. Some tourists that same day see the marlin’s skeleton and mistake it as a shark. Now in the shack, the old man goes back to his sleep and dreams of lions that he had seen in his youth when he was in Africa.

Character sketch of Santiago: The Hero of the Novel

Santiago is the main character of this novel. The whole story revolves around him and his moral values. He lives in Cuba and is impoverished because his good days are long gone. His wife has died earlier and he never had any children. Now, at such an old age, he is unable to catch a big fish or any fish at all at a regular pace. 84 days is the longest period in his life where he has not been able to catch any fish.

A fishermen’s reputation depends on his luck and how many fish he can catch. The old man is considered a stroke of bad luck in the community when it comes to fishing. He used to teach fishing to a boy who had been with him from a young age. Now his parents have sent him to learn from other fishermen because of Santiago’s bad luck. But, what sets Santiago apart from every regular fisherman is that he is dedicated to his profession on a spiritual level. Mostly fishermen join it to earn money but he takes it as nature’s course, which has to happen.

Santiago strongly feels that he is the part of that nature’s course, playing his role in catching the fish. His moral values are much different from the others when it comes to fishing properly and professionally. Indeed, Santiago’s philosophy and internal code of behaviour make him unconventional in his society. Santiago’s dedication to his profession and talent separates him from the pragmatic fishermen motivated by money. He stands apart from Cuba’s evolution to new materialism and a village fishing culture converting to the fishing industry. He remains dedicated to the profession he sees as a more spiritual way of life and a part of nature’s order in the eternal cycle. It makes all creatures brothers in their common condition of both predator and prey.

Santiago wants an extremely big catch – not only to survive but also to prove his skills once again. He wishes to restore his identity as a fisherman and secure his reputation in the community. To make sure that Manolin will always cherish his memories and becomes his successor, is one of the most important things in his life.  For Santiago, the most important thing in life is to live according to one’s beliefs with great enthusiasm and dignity. In addition, to use one’s talents and gifts of nature to the best of one’s ability, to struggle and to endure.  Moreover, save your individual existence through the work of your life, accept the inevitable destruction with dignity, and pass on to the next generation all that you have achieved. In these desires, He reflects the desires of all of us.

What makes Santiago special is that despite a lifetime of hardships, he is still a man in charge, and an expert who knows the tricks of his fisherman’s craft. His eyes remain young, cheerful, and undefeated. He knows how to rely on the transcendent power of his own imagination to engender the inspiration and confidence he needs. He wants to keep alive in himself and others the hope, dreams, faith, absorption, and resolution to transcend hardship.

Character sketch of Marlin

The marlin is a fish that has more to it to it than any other could possibly have. It is not just a big fish but also one with a true fighting spirit. Equally balanced with a successful fisherman and locked in a long battle.  It is also a creature to which Santiago offers the same qualities that he possesses, admires, and hopes to pass on. It has the dignity of the soul, greatness in life, loyalty to one’s identity and ways, endurance, and beauty.  Since Santiago and Marilyn get locked in battle for three days, they develop a close relationship.  Santiago first takes pity on the fish, praises it because he does not want to kill such a precious creature, then empathizes, and recognizes it.  He recognizes that just as a marlin was born to be a fish, so was he born to be a fisherman.

He comes to the realization that he needs to kill it in order to survive, and restore his dignity. They are brothers in the strange circumstances brought upon them by nature, trapped in the natural cycle of hunting. Marlin’s death represents Santiago’s greatest victory and the promise of all the confusion he desperately hopes to redeem his individual existence with.  Yet, like Marlin, Santiago must lose and suffer.  After being attacked by the Mako shark, Santiago eats marlin to maintain his body, and completes the natural cycle in which the great creature transfers itself to Santiago.  Not only are all creatures hunters and prey, but they also nurture each other.  Marlin’s brave and relentless struggle in order to save its life becomes Santiago’s bravery, which is inevitable in Santiago’s struggle to save the marlin from the predators.

The Scavenger sharks snatch all the material value from the marlin’s body, leaving only its skeleton for Santiago.  Nevertheless, before the skeleton washes away with the flow of tide and turns to garbage, it becomes a quiet witness to Santiago’s greatness. It becomes a vehicle for internal moral values, ​​through which he wants to give meaning and dignity to his existence.  The fisherman who gets the privilege to measure marlin’s skeleton reports that it the fish is 18 feet long. It is a clear evidence of the largest fish the villagers have ever known of coming out of the bay.  And when Manolin accepts the spear of marlin, he accepts everything Santiago wants to give him in his life.

Character sketch of Manolin

Manolin is a young boy who goes fishing with Santiago. Since he is not able to catch any fish, his parents put Manolin with another fisherman. The bond that the two share is still strong, despite the circumstances. Manolin prepares food for Santiago, helps him with his tools. Santiago tells stories of his adventures to Manolin and they always mesmerize him. Manolin deeply cares for Santiago and tries to follow his teachings. Santiago feels that Manolin is his last true relationship that has feelings and depth in it. He takes him as his own replacement after death in the human cycle. That is the reason why Santiago wants to teach his skills, talent, and vision to Manolin, so the young boy can carry on his legacy.

Through the whole novel, Manolin has expressed his trust on Santiago more than three times. At last, when he accepts the spear of Marlin, it shows that Manolin has trust in Santiago’s skills. It is also a sign that he will carry on his legacy and whatever he wants to teach him.

Quotations in “The Old Man and the Sea” are listed below with explanations.

 1.     “Have faith in the Yankees my son. Think of the great Joe DiMaggio.” (Santiago)

Santiago spoke these lines in his shack to Manolin, when they were having a conversation about baseball.

Santiago’s appreciation and love for baseball is clearly showing in his words. He especially admires DiMaggio because of his great playing skills and energy in the field.

  2.    “There are many good fishermen and some great ones. But there is only you.” (Manolin)

Spoken by Manolin, these words were for Santiago. While going to bed, Santiago said that he knows many fishermen who have great skills and are much better. Manolin compares him to DiMaggio and tells him that he is unique just like him. He is a different fisherman who has respect for the sea and a deep relationship with it.

 3.    “They are good… They play and make jokes and love one another. They are our brothers like the flying fish.” (Santiago)

Santiago is talking about the porpoises here. They always come to the side of his boat at night. He feels lonely at times, thinking that no one should be like this in his or her old age. He wants Manolin to be on his boat, fishing with him but he is unable to do so. The porpoises are a sign of love for him. They come as a couple, which provides strength to Santiago and soothes him. He considers them as his brothers as he considers every other creature in the sea his brothers, especially the fish.

 4.    “Fish… I’ll stay with you until I am dead.” (Santiago)

He says this line to the fish marlin that he hooks. He knows that it is an extremely strong one. It will not be easy for him to trail the fish around until it dies by losing strength. Santiago expresses his determination by saying that either he will catch the fish or they will both die doing so.

 5.    “Fish… I love you and respect you very much. But I will kill you dead before this day ends.” (Santiago)

Santiago’s heart goes out to the sea creatures but he has no choice. He needs to kill the marlin to prove and restore his identity back as a fisherman. He considers the marlin as equal in a battle of uncertainty. He does not know if he will survive it, but is still determined to stay with the marlin. He will keep trying until he kills it.

 6.    “He didn’t beat you. Not the fish.” (Manolin)

Manolin says this to Santiago after Santiago returns home, having lost the fish and slept through the night. In the morning, Santiago tells Manolin, “They truly beat me”. He is talking about the sharks that ate the fish after he caught it. It was not the fish who beat him. The fish and he were brothers in his eyes, and he feels like he has somehow betrayed the fish by letting it be eaten by the scavenging sharks.

 7.    “I didn’t know sharks had such handsome, beautifully formed tails.” (A female tourist)

 Almost at the end of the story, there is a female tourist examining the skeleton of marlin. She asks a nearby waiter in wonder what it is. He tells her “Eshark”, meaning that sharks ate it. She takes it as the skeleton being a shark, which is why she says those lines. It shows how less an average person knows about the creatures out there in the sea.

 8.    “I am a strange old man.” (Santiago)

Santiago says this to Manolin after they finish up a day of fishing on separate boats. It is meant as an explanation for how his eyes remain so good after going turtle-ing for so many years. Often he searches and searches but returns without a fish. It also shows how strong he is while wrestling the marlin and strange in a manner that he never loses faith and will to go on.

He considers himself strange because of his bond with the sea creatures.

9.    “Anyone can be a fisherman in May.” (Santiago)

He says this to Manolin after Manolin warns him to keep himself warm, since it is September. It is more difficult to be a fisherman when it is cold outside, but Santiago is up for the challenge.

He means that everyone can go fishing in the month of May because it is warm and easy. The actual challenge comes when the winter sets in. That is when an actual fisherman goes fishing.

 10. “If sharks come, God pity him and me.” (Santiago)

He says this aloud to himself while trailing the marlin with his boat, waiting for it to give up. He is determined to be “worthy of the great DiMaggio”, who is able to play baseball even with a bone spur. He suspects that the sharks will soon smell the marlin’s blood. They are surely going to come for its meat once they find the marlin. He sort of prays in this line.

 11. “It is better to be lucky. But I’d rather be exact.”  (Santiago)

Santiago says this when his community starts calling him unlucky. He believes that his success has nothing to do with luck. He has complete faith in his skills and talent through which he can easily turn the things around in his favor. If he goes fishing with the right knowledge, and uses it to his advantage, he will surely catch a fish.

 12. “All my life the early sun has hurt my eyes. Yet they are still good.” (Santiago)

Fishing took a toll on Santiago. He says this to show the readers how he keeps going even after he endured the hardships being in the sea and under the bright sun. The early sunrays always hurt his eyes but he is proud that they are still fine.

 13. “I wish I could show him what sort of man I am.” (Santiago)

Santiago says this aloud, thinking that if Manolin were with him, he could show him everything. He could prove that he was still a good fisherman.

 14. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.” (Santiago)

Somewhat defenseless after having lost his harpoon when protecting his catch from the sharks, the old man shows that an individual’s willpower and resourcefulness will ultimately help him persevere. He says that to show his determination that even if he lost his harpoon, his defense mechanism, he is still not going to give up.

 15. “It is silly not to hope.” (Santiago)

Santiago concludes that hope is everything. When everything goes wrong and there is nothing that you have, hope is still there. It is an ever-present feeling for him that things will be normal again. Hope is eternal and ultimately leads to triumph.

 The Old Man and the Sea | Symbols

The Old Man and the Sea is rich in meaning. Virtually every element operates on two levels, revealing a deeper symbolic meaning beneath its literal function. Nothing that happens in the novella is only what it seems. Instead the novella is an allegory, elevating the story of Santiago's epic struggle with the marlin to humankind's universal struggle for survival.

Lions

Both in his bed in the village and in his boat, Santiago dreams of lions on the beaches of Africa, which he saw when he was a boy on a ship that sailed and fished the coast of Africa. The lions symbolize Santiago's lost youth as well as his pride (a group of lions is called a "pride"). Santiago's love for the lions, which are fierce predators, also mirrors his relationship with the marlin, whom he loves but whose death he feels is necessary to his survival. In this way, the lions as also symbolize Santiago's affinity with nature. Now that Santiago is no longer young, and has lost his friends, family, and strength, he sees the lions only in his dreams. Santiago's dreams of the lions at the end of the novella suggest that in triumphing over the marlin, he has undergone his own rejuvenation.

Marlin

The marlin symbolizes the majesty of nature. With its sheer size, strength, and tenacity as evidenced in its pulling Santiago's skiff for several days, the marlin is a formidable opponent. Unlike other fish, this marlin does not fight the hook but instead uses it to fight the old man. The marlin seems successful at first, as the old man must hold on to the fishing line so hard he is injured in the process. Watching the marlin put up so strong a fight, the old man feels more and more akin to this creature and begins to draw parallels. Although they seem to be mortal enemies in the universal battle between predator and prey, Santiago realizes in the end they are brothers because they are in this fight for the same reason: to survive.

Although both the marlin and the old man are part of the natural order of life, locked in the struggle between predator and prey, perseverance distinguishes the two. To triumph in his struggle against the marlin, the old man must dig deep within himself to overcome not only the marlin's strength but his own limitations: age, exhaustion, pain, hunger, and thirst. The battle between the two is not merely the attempt of a fisherman trying to reel in his catch and go home. This particular marlin brings out the best in Santiago by pushing him to his limits. The battle becomes a symbol of the constant struggle of an individual for survival within nature, a struggle won only by one's willingness to go beyond what seems humanly possible.

The marlin also can represent Hemingway's writing and career. In this sense, it's the writing Hemingway has worked on for his entire life that he tries to hold onto.

Mast

The mast of the old man's skiff is an allusion to the Christian cross, which in turn symbolizes pain and suffering for a greater good. The three bleeding wounds Santiago suffers as he sails underneath the mast of his skiff allude to the three wounds of Jesus Christ as he was nailed to the cross, suffering to atone for humankind's sins. At the end of the story, Santiago carries the mast to the shack similar to the way Jesus carried the cross, symbolizing that Santiago has accepted his fate as Jesus accepted his. Santiago will continue to fish no matter what, alone and lonely, neither asking for help or miracles nor to succeed and live better. He will simply do, unquestioningly, what individuals must: struggle to survive.

Joe DiMaggio

Joe DiMaggio, the legendary New York Yankees outfielder whose 56-game hitting streak that ended in 1941 still remains the world record, symbolizes perseverance and persistence as well as skill. In Santiago's eyes, the hitting streak alone makes DiMaggio formidable, yet DiMaggio achieved this feat despite painful injuries such as the bone spurs repeatedly mentioned in the novella. Much like DiMaggio, Santiago defies the odds and catches the greatest fish of his career after a long dry spell, survives for days out on the ocean without proper supplies, and emerges the victor against aggressive sharks. His skill and perseverance while facing seemingly insurmountable obstacles make him a hero worthy of respect even though he does not succeed in bringing home his catch.

Sharks

Symbolizing the brute force of destruction, the sharks are mindless creatures following their base instincts: the bloodlust that lures them to their prey. Yet their very bloodlust also lures them to their death. As they take bites out of the marlin in a feeding frenzy, they come close enough to the skiff for Santiago to kill them. What sustains them kills them. Neither their lives nor their deaths serve any purpose. Defeating them with sheer willpower and innovation, Santiago not only survives himself but also defends the magnificent marlin. He brings home the skeleton and thus captures the creature's majesty and glory.

In a different interpretation, the sharks also symbolize all the critics Hemingway faced in real life. Hemingway hadn't produced much writing publicly in many years, and his most recent publication had received a negative reception. This novella seems to liken those critics to sharks who circle and pounce.

Manolin

Manolin, the young boy who loves, admires, and cares for the old man, symbolizes hope and the future. He is Santiago's only friend and companion; his help, literally, sustains the old man. Manolin is there every night helping pack up Santiago's gear and providing food to make sure the old man won't starve. Furthermore, he is the old man's apprentice. Although at the beginning of the story he fishes on another boat, Manolin has learned everything he knows from Santiago. Promising to fix the battered skiff and to return to fishing with the old man, Manolin offers the help the old man needs to keep going. Manolin believes in the old man and therefore will carry on his legacy and bear witness to his achievement.

 

What is a symbol and what is symbolism?

A symbol is something that gives a certain meaning to an action, person, place, word, or thing in a piece of literature.  Story-writers use symbolism to form a view of emotions or moods rather than just saying them plainly. Following are the main symbols used in “The Old Man and the Sea”: Marlin, dreams, loins, sea, mast, shark, harpoons, bird, bear, cottage etc.

Santiago, the Old Man

The old man is compared to Christ in a religious manner, in terms of stamina and endurance. He is a teacher like Christ who teaches Manolin to fish, and the way he is humble. Repeatedly, it is demonstrated that the old man is a symbol of Christ with the way he fights the marlin. Later on, he also survives the shark’s attacks.

The Sea

The sea is a symbol of life and the struggles that every person is bound to endure. According to Hemingway, man is the most worthy in isolation because he has to work and survive on his own. The sea, in the novel, is a sign of life and Santiago’s isolation in the universe. As we can see that in the sea, there is no help or laws at all. Santiago faces his ultimate challenge all alone and survives. The novel, in this regard, is an example of Naturalism in Literature.

The Marlin

The Marlin is a good opponent of Santiago, worthy of fight. It is a symbol of dignity and pride. The Marlin is in contrast to the sharks that are shameful rivals, not commendable to Santiago’s endeavours. Magnificent and radiant, the Marlin represents a perfect rival. In the world’s reality where, “Everything kills everything else in some way”, Santiago feels truly fortunate to wind up against an animal that draws out the best in him. The Marlin brings out his qualities of courage, talent, fortitude, love, and regard.

Manolin

Manolin symbolizes pure love, compassion, and circle of life. He dearly loves Santiago and cares for him. Between Manolin and Old Man, there is a vast age difference. It symbolizes their skills of fishing. One day Manolin will be able to reach that point and carry Santiago’s legacy. Manolin is the symbol of hope.

Sharks

The sharks in “the Old Man and the Sea” symbolize the obstacles in life and the labour against them. Sharks are the opposite of the marlin. For Santiago, the sharks are vile predators, that are not worthy of admiration or glory. They are like detrimental energies that promote no other purpose in life.

The lions

The lions in the story symbolize youth of the old man. They are a symbol of strength. At the end of the novel, when Santiago dreams of the lions, it represents the hope of eternal life, of freedom and youth. Because of the qualities of strength of lions and their proud, the writer has used them to represent childhood days of Santiago. Lions are a symbol for his might and pride in days of his youth. Just as Santiago hunts the Marlin, lions are also mighty creatures and hunters.

DiMaggio

DiMaggio symbolizes the value of enduring through pain and suffering. He is a Symbol of motivation to keep Santiago on his feet. DİMaggio is a true representation of Santiago’s talent, pride, and ethics. He is also a sign of hope for the old man. Santiago desires that Manolin will grow up to become like the great DiMaggio, strong and young. He does not want him to be like him, a poor fisherman.

The Mast

The Mast is a symbol and represents as the cross of Jesus. The mast stands on Santiago’s skiff. It is similar to the cross because of the way Santiago suffers. He goes three days with painful injuries to the palms of his hands as Jesus did and to his back as well.

The Harpoon

While fighting off sharks, Santiago loses his Harpoon. It is a symbol for those who lose faith, and doubt everything in their life. When life tests them with struggles, they lose hope, as Santiago is without his harpoon, defenceless. People are exactly like that without faith.